Communication Studies

Research

 DIFFERENT FORMS OF RESEARCH

 METHODS OF RESEARCH

Types of Data
1. Descriptive vs Analytical
2. Applied vs Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs Empirical

STEPS TAKEN IN RESEARCH

1. Collect information
2. Sort information
3. Analyze information
4. Understand information

Qualitative- Types of Research

- Primary Research
- Secondary Research
Primary research is anything that is original meaning you are the first person to be doing it.
Secondary research is anything that already existed. Books, magazines, newspaper articles,
textbooks.

Primary Sources
Anything being done for the first time.
- Census Reports
- E-mails
- Personal writings/narratives
- Newsletters
- Memos
- Interviews
 - Birth/Death records
- Annual Reports
- Autobiographies
- Speeches
- Diary/Journal
- Photographs
- Minutes
- Tax Reports
- Immigration papers
- Blog entries
- Eye-witness Reports
- Original works of art/literature
- Meeting minutes
- Correspondences
- Court Cases

Secondary Sources
- Almanacs
- Bibliographies
- Books
- Commentaries
- Critical Studies
- Dissertation
- Encyclopedias
- History Books
- Journal/Magazine
- Newspapers
- Reference Books
- Textbooks

When Choosing a Source…

Authority- does the person have special knowledge or an expert on the topic. For example, don’t
use articles without names as creditability may be limited
Reliability- Where are you getting this information from?
Validity- The more recent it is, 3-5 years for something to be considered a valid source of
information.
Primary Data
- Questionnaires (popular form of data) online, face to face, over the phone, post/mail
- Interviews
- Focus group
- Survey
- Observation (Participant, Non-Participant)

Advantages of Questionnaires
- Large audience
- Anonymous
- Easy to administer
- Information is collected in a standardized manner

Disadvantages of Questionnaires
- You may not get all of them back if there’s a large audience
- People may misinterpret a question
- Some questions may not be answered
- Often requires additional research
- If there’s a lot of questions and a lot of open ended
- Not all people can answer e.g., Visually impaired, illiterate

Interviews investigates a topic in an in-depth manner because it is just you and another person.
Advantages of Interviews
- How people think and feel?
- Strategic planning; where you can plan ahead
- Get detailed information
- Response rate is high
- Able to clarify ill mis concepts
- Unbiased
Disadvantages of Interviews
- Takes a while to finish
- Get more information than necessary
Focus Group Method
How people think and feel about something. More exploratory rather than come to a conclusion.
Statistical data can be explained. Random group
Advantages of a Focus Group
- Detailed Information about people’s opinions
- Save time and money
- Provides an opportunity for the researcher to receive clarification
- Wide range of information
Disadvantages of a Focus Group
- Difficult to control or manage
- Can be tricky to analyze
- Can be intimidating
- Can be disagreements or idle conversation

Survey Method
Advantages of Survey Method
- Sample size is not limited
- Conducted when secondary information is unavailable
- Can compare information allowing you to analyze
- Quantitative and Qualitative
- Cost Effective
- Data can be easily and accurately compiled
Disadvantages of Survey Method
- May not reach all the relevant individuals
- The validity can be questionable
Direct Observation / Participation Observation
Indirect Observation / Non-participant Observation
Advantages
- Valid
- In-depth Understanding
- Access to people in real life situations
Disadvantages
- Time Consuming
- Misunderstandings
- Potential for conflict
1. Mr. Josiah Pictor- Lecturer wants to speak to teenagers at Morison Secondary about the
dangers of the internet.

Message conceived- dangers of the internet

Encoding- oral
Communication medium selected- Lecture / speech

What are four aspects of communication he must consider?

- Encode
- Channel
- Conceptualization
- Receivers / audience

2. President- Drama Club

- Skit - alert - students - dangers of illicit drugs
Pretend you are the president of drama club.
You are the source
Encode message
Channel is skit
Medium / channel skit- what are 3 mediums you can use to convey your message: props, song,
monologue

QUESTIONAIRE IA
My name is ….and I’m a student of naps girls.
State purpose- my aim is to investigate….
You would greatly appreciate they would respond to the following questions
Responses are confidential
Which age bracket do you belong to
Schools they attend
Area they live
Gender

How would you define school

INTERVIEW
Biodata- Name and Credentials
How long have you been in this field?
How long have you worked with or do you often see patients of abuse?
Has school violence become more common?
Would there be a link between abuse and school violence?
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE ITSELF
Language is:
Is a mode of communication, it is also a means of which messages are transmitted, it is also a
system that is made up of arbitrary (the way we which we arrive at symbols) symbols and rules
and exclusively a human mode of communication. Symbols have nothing related to its meaning.
It’s social…language is social. It allows you to create various communities or friendships.
Sound symbols- phyinology Symbolic means that is consists of symbols phonology. Symbols
with graphological counterparts.
Systematic meaning there are grammatical rules or systems associated with it.
Language is vocal- Speech is primary, writing is secondary
Non instinctive- something that needs to be learnt
Conventional meaning it has been created as a result of evolution.
Language is productive and creative
Language possesses displacement meaning that you are able to talk about things not necessarily
in the present.
Language is human
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication
Both oral and written as it uses words. Key Components:
Sound
Lexicon
Semantics
Speaking
ORAL- monologue, conversation, storytelling, singing, interview, seminar, workshop
WRITTEN (record of communication)- taking notes, essays, reports, emails, text messages,
minutes of a meeting
Goal of communication is to give effective communication and receive feedback
Disadvantage of oral communication is that it cannot be recorded. Does not feed the context of
the situation. Can be time consuming, depending on the context.
Advantages of oral communication- easiest and speedy, instantaneous, able to ask or clarify
questions,
Advantage of written communication- less chance of being misunderstood, if you want everyone
to have the same message, provides written record, authority is known

Hi 😊 - Ashley

Disadvantage of written communication- being impersonal

Non-Verbal Communication
Wordless queues
Use physical actions or manipulation to convey information
Body Language- gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact, stance on how you move
convey attitudes and feelings, subjective
Proxemics- use of space, physical space
Chronemics- use of time
Artefacts- objects eg glasses, phone, hat
Para Language / Vocalics- it’s what you say, but how you say it, non lexical components of
speech, tone, pitch, speed, intonation
Graphs or Symbols- information can be presented to us, graphically or symbolically eg traffic
lights, sign language
MODULE 1 ESSAY

My purpose is to (verb) with the intention of….

The main point of …is that….

Language techniques are ONLY Literary Devices, eg idioms, simile, metaphor, personification,
POV, alliteration, onomatapia, hyperbole, tone
Strategies are references to authority, scientific evidence, strategies, particular genre of writing,
use of examples, expert sources, paragraphing, sentencing, subheadings, contrast,
In expository, your purpose is to inform readers about something to make a informed decisions.
Must use facts.

MODULE 1 ESSAY

My purpose is to (verb) with the intention of….

The main point of …is that….

Language techniques are ONLY Literary Devices, eg idioms, simile, metaphor, personification,
POV, alliteration, onomatapia, hyperbole, tone
Strategies are references to authority, scientific evidence, strategies, particular genre of writing,
use of examples, expert sources, paragraphing, sentencing, subheadings, contrast,
In expository, your purpose is to inform readers about something to make a informed decisions.
Must use facts.

DISCOURSE TYPE PURPOSE STRATEGIES /

TECHNIQUES
Descriptive Writing To entertain, to describe, to visually
present, to illustrate, Figure of speech,
adjectives, anecdote (story
to relate)

Narrative Writing To entertain, to either relate an

experience or recount an experience, to Descriptive language,
explain figurative language,
 subject from which the
story is told (1st person, 3rd
person)

Expository Writing To inform, to instruct, to establish, to

demonstrate, to convey, Facts, references,
objective

Argumentative Writing To convince, to influence

Logos (logic), facts, data,
references, statistics,
neutral language,
objective

Persuasive Writing To persuade, use of opinion, to

influence Emotive language,
Bandwagonism, rhetorical
questions

(a) State the writer’s MAIN point in no more than 30 words.

(b) Write an ESSAY in no more than 500 words in which you include reference the
following:
(i) The writers purpose
(ii) Organizational strategies
(iii) Language techniques
(iv) Tone
The main idea is that young adults in the workplace are both illiterate and innumerate because
they squandered their learning opportunities in primary and secondary school.
GENRE: Narrative

According to the extract adapted from Suzanne Mills, “Between the Lines”, the writer’s purpose
along with organizational strategies, language techniques and tone will be discussed.
The writer’s purpose is to highlight (to bring awareness to…) the number of illiterate and
innumerate young people in the workplace with the intention of encouraging corrective action.
Organizational Strategies- Examples, Recounting of a personal experience, helps to highlight the
situation, ,making it a more realistic one and helps spread the message. The single line at the
bottom establishes the reader’s main point.
Language techniques- The second language technique used is rhetorical questions gets the reader
thinking about the situation, first person view makes it relatable, conversational engages the
reader getting them to contemplate on the situation e.g., “don’t they?” This helps to achieve the
author’s purpose because it conveys / highlights/ showcase the (author’s purpose).
Emotive language “thinking sadly”, frustration, impatient, underscores the sense of frustration of
the persona…. Provide 1 example.

The first organizational strategy used here is the use of contrast. This is seen between the young
employee’s educational incompetence and that of the other “suited girl who looks senior in age
and rank” and her competence. This helps to achieve the author’s purpose because it highlights
that young people are uneducated in the workplace and corrected action must be taken to address
this situation.

Tone: Annoyed, Frustration, Agitated, concerned (young people squander their education) The
writer’s tone in this piece is that of frustration with a sense of concern. His tone is expressed or
conveyed through…. (quote the phrases which help to highlight the tone). Highlight mental
incompetence.

CONCLUSION
Looking at questions that were posed / given. The use of organizational strategies techniques and
tone were effective in conveying the writers’ purpose (reiterate the writer’s purpose from the
beginning).
2018- SEXTING PAST PAPER

The writer’s purpose is to inform/ draw attention to/ to sensitize his readers about the problem of
sexting with the intention of educating youths about the unintended consequences of sexting.
(Purpose)
Organizational Strategies: use of definitions, use of examples, use of short sentences, expert
sources, cause and effect or problem solution, statement of fact- (According to the Miami
Herald). State, explain and provide evidence.
The first organizational strategy used is evidence from authoritative sources. This is seen in the
study commissioned by the National Campaign to Prevent Teenage Pregnancy and
Cosmogirl.com. This helps to provide validity of information in addition, helps to emphasize the
extent of the problem of teenage sexting. This helps to achieve the author’s purpose to
sensitize… (repeat author’s purpose here).
The second organizational strategy used was the definition of sexting, this is seen through the 1st
line of the passage, “Sexting- teens sending sexually explicit photos of themselves via
cellphones.” Helps to clarify the concept as well as facilitate some form of understanding to the
readers, this helps to achieve the author’s purpose because it helps to educate them.
Statistical evidence provides factual evidence that can be clarified.
Third organizational strategy used is problem solution format. This is seen where the problem of
sexting is presented and possible solutions are offered. This format works to suggest that while
there may be challenges with the problem or associated with the problem of sexting they can be
dealt with. This helps to achieve the author’s purpose by drawing attention to this issue with the
intention of… (rewrite purpose)
Language techniques: rhetorical questions, metaphor, emotive language, cliché (put them in jail
and throw away the key), mythological allusion (Pandora Box), inclusive language (We, Our),
use of conversational tone.
The first language technique used was that of inclusive language through the use of first-person
plural pronouns. This is seen through, “Our way out of the problem,” and dialogue without kids.
This helps readers to identify with the problem as well as encourages parents and guardians to
take an active role in sensitizes their kids about (repeat author’s purpose).
Second language technique used is that of emotive words and phrases. This is seen in, “hapless
victim” “Tragically”, “ruined his life”. Use of these words help to underscore or highlight the
potentially harmful effects of teens engaging in sexting. This helps to achieve the author’s
purpose because it sensitizes readers about the problem of….
Evaluate the validity of the information.
Questionable validity- It is posted in a blog which is of course personal and subjective.
Additionally, the credentials of the writer are nowhere stated. However, the writer does site
credible evidence from authoritative sources such as “National Campaign to Prevent Teenage
and Unwanted Pregnancy” and “The Miami Herald”.

Closing Paragraph- the use of organizational strategies and language techniques were effective
in achieving the writer’s purpose of… (rewrite the purpose)
Five Main Registers (refer to the level of formality in language depending on the context,
setting)
1. Frozen refers to what the level of formality, type of language structures that is fixed and
unchanging e.g. Lord’s Prayer
2. Formal uses language structures that are formal (standard variety, standard English,
standard Caribbean English, acrolectal variety)
3. Consultative is a register also that employs the same language structures and is similar to
the formal register and is used for professional discourse- it can be a 2-way conversation
where expert advice is exchanged (doctor, teacher, lawyer) register can change with
emotion, comfort
4. Casual register is the language that is used between friends, peers- include slangs,
mesolectal variety, profane language
5. Intimate- significant other, immediate family, and bffs

Mutual Intellgilibity only happens when people understand each other