FACULTY OF

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M
E Chapter 5
C Loading Effects In Measurement Systems
H
A And Two Port Network
T
R Dr. Bashir NOURI
O Department of Mechatronics Engineering
N
I Faculty of Engineering
C An-Najah National University
S
1 Dr. Bashir M. Y. NOURI
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M Introduction:
E Inter-Element Loading: a given element in the system may modify the
C characteristics of the previous element (for example by drawing
H current)

A Process Loading: The introduction of the sensing element into the process
or system being measured causes the value of the measured variable
T to change.
R Electrical Loading:
O Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
N
Thevenin’s theorem states that any network consisting of linear
I impedances and voltage sources can be replaced by an equivalent
C circuit consisting of a voltage source ETh and a series impedance ZTh
S
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M Where:
E ETh ≡ Open circuit voltage of the network across the output terminals.

C ZTh ≡ The impedance looking back into the output terminals with all voltage
sources reduced to zero and replaced by their internal impedances (Short
H circuited).
A
T
Þ
R
O
N ETh ZL
i = VL = i Z L = ETh
I Z Th + Z L ZTh + Z L
C
Þ Loading of Thevenin equivalent circuit
S If ZL >> ZTh Þ VL ≈ ETh
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Þ To get maximum voltage transfer from the network to the load, the load
M impedance (ZL) should be far greater than the Thevenin impedance (ZTh)
E for the network.

C Þ To get maximum power transfer from network to load, the load impedance
(ZL) should be equal to Thevenin impedance (ZTh).
H
Example: Determination of Thevenin equivalent circuit for the
A temperature measurement system.
T
R
O
N The thermocouple may be represented by ZTh = 20 W (resistive) and ETh= 40 T
mV where T is the measurement junction temperature. The amplifier acts as a
I load for the thermocouple and as a voltage source for the indictor. The
amplifier has input impedance ZIN = RIN = 2 ´ 106 W, open circuit voltage gain
C A = 103, and output impedance ZOUT = ROUT = 75 W. The indicator is resistive
S load of 10 KW.

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M 1- Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit of the thermocouple:
E
C
H
A
T
R 2- Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit of the amplifier:
O
N
I
C
S
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Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the complete temperature measurement system.

M
E
C
H
A
T
R
O Calculation of the loading error
N 1- Consider the left hand side loop:
I i =
ETh
=
40 ´ 10- 6 T
Z Th + R IN 20 + 2 ´ 106
C
S 40 ´ 10- 6 ´ 2 ´ 106 80
VIN = i R IN = 6
T = 6
T
20 + 2 ´ 10 20 + 2 ´ 10
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M 2- Consider the right hand side loop:

E i =
1000 VIN
=
1000 VIN
R OUT + R L 75 + 10 ´ 10 3
C
1000´ 10 ´ 103 800 ´ 106
H VL = i R L = VIN = T
75 + 10 ´ 103 ( 75 + 10 ´ 103 ) ( 20 + 2 ´ 106 )
A
25 ´ 800 ´ 106
T TM = 25 VL = 3 6
( 75 + 10 ´ 10 ) ( 20 + 2 ´ 10 )
T = 0.9925 T

R
Loading Error = TM - TT = 0.9925 T - T = - 0.0075 T
O
N This loading error is in addition to steady state errors.
I
C
S
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M Example: Determination of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and

loading errors of variable reluctance tachogenerator.
E
C
H
ETh = Ê sin w t
A
T
R
O
The Thévenin voltage (ETh) for the tachogenerator is a.c. with an amplitude
N Ê and angular frequency ω, both proportional to the input mechanical
I angular velocity (ωr)

C ETh = Ê sin w t

S Where : Ê = ( 5.0 ´ 10- 3 ) wr [ volts]

w = 6 wr [ rad / s ]
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M Thevenin impedance (ZTh) ≡ Inductance (LTh) and resistance (RTh) in series

(Coil surrounding magnet).
E
ZTh = R Th + j w L Th
C
If the input angular velocity wr = 103 rad / s
H Þ Ê = ( 5.0 ´ 10- 3 ) ´ 103 = 5.0 volts
A w = 6 ´ 103 rad / s Þ ETh = 5.0 sin ( 6 ´ 103 t ) [ volts ]
T and ZTh = 1.5 + 6 j [K W]
R
Ê
O Ê = Z Th + R L i Þ i =
Z Th + R L
N RL
Þ V̂L = R L i = Ê
I Z Th + R L
C Þ V̂L =
10
2 2
´ 5.0 = 3.85 volts
( 11.5 ) + ( 6.0 )
S
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M If the recorder scale sensitivity is ( kR = 1/ (5 ´ 10-3) = 200 [rad/ s.v] )

E Þ The recorded angular velocity (wM) is:
C
H
A 1
Þ wM = k R ´ V̂L = -3
´ 3.85 = 770 rad / s
5 ´ 10
T
Þ Error = wM - wr = 770 - 103 = - 230 rad / s
R
O
N This error can be reduced either by increasing the recorder impedance (ZL) or
by changing the recorder sensitivity (kR) to allow for loading effects.
I
C
S
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M Example: Determination of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and

loading errors of a potentiometer displacement sensor.
E
C
H
A
T
R
O
N
I
C
S
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M Schematic diagram of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

a potentiometer of the potentiometer
E
C
H
A
T
R
O
N
I
C
S
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M Calculation of RTh and ETh

E
C
H
A d
Fractional displacement º x =
T dT

R ETh = VS x
O
R Th = R P x // R P ( 1 - x )
N Þ R Th = R P x ( 1 - x )
I
C
S
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M
RL RL
E VL = ETh
R Th + R L
= VS x
RP x (1 - x ) + RL
C x
Þ VL = VS
H R
( RP ) x (1 - x ) + 1
L

A
Þ Voltage – displacement relationship for a
T loaded potentiometer.
R
The relationship between VL and x is nonlinear. The a mount of nonlinearity
O depends on the ratio ( RP/ RL)
N
I VL
= R
x
A plot this relationship is shown in the
VS ( RP ) x (1 - x ) + 1
C L following Figure.
S
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M
ÞNonlinear characteristics of a loaded
E potentiometer. The amount of nonlinearity
depends on the ratio (RP/ RL).
C
ÞThe effect of loading a linear
H potentiometer sensor is the introduction of
A nonlinear error into the system, that is
given by:
T
R
O
N
I
C If
RP
RL
<< 1 Þ
æR ö
(
N ( x ) » VS çç P ÷÷ x 2 - x3 )
è RL ø
S
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M Problem 5.2/ Page 94

The motion of a hydraulic ram is to be recorded using a potentiometer
E displacement sensor connected to a recorder. The potentiometer is 25 cm
C long and has linear resistance displacement characteristics. A set of
potentiometers with maximum power rating of 5 W and resistance values
H ranging from 250 to 2500 Ω in 250 Ω steps is available. The recorder has a
A resistance of 5000 Ω and the non-linear error of the system must not exceed
2% of full scale.
T Find:
a) the maximum potentiometer sensitivity that can be obtained;
R b) the required potentiometer resistance and supply voltage in order to
O achieve maximum sensitivity.
Solution:
N
I
æR ö
(
N ( x ) » VS çç P ÷÷ x2 - x3 )
è RL ø
C
d
S x =
dT
, d T = 25 cm

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M To find the value of x where the maximum nonlinearity (Ň) occurs:

E dN( x)
dx
æR ö
( )
= VS çç P ÷÷ 2 x - 3 x 2 = 0 Þ x =
2
è RL ø 3
C
H
æR ö
( )
N̂ = VS çç P ÷÷ ( 23 )2 - ( 23 )3 = 4
V
æ
ç
27 S ç
RP ö
÷÷
è RL ø è RL ø
A
Input range is (0 - dT) = (0 - 25 cm) and output range is (0 - VS)
T
Þ Maximum nonlinearity as percentage of f. s. d.
R N̂ N̂ 400 æ R P ö
= ´ 100% = ´ 100 % = ç ÷%
O VS - 0 VS 27 çè R L ÷ø
N N̂ 400 æ R P ö
ç ÷ £ 2
´ 100% £ 2 % Þ
I VS 27 çè R L ÷ø
54 R L 54 ´ 5000
C Þ RP £ Þ RP £ Þ R P £ 675 W
400 400
S The required potentiometer resistance is RP = 500 W
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M Power max . = Ŵ £ 5 W , Ŵ =
VS2
E RP

C Þ VS = R P Ŵ Þ VS £ 500 ´ 5 = 50 V

H D VL V - 0 V 50
Sensitivity = = S = S = = 2 V / cm
A Dd dT - 0 dT 25
T
R
O
N
I
C
S
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M
E
C
H

Questions
A
T
R
O
N
I
C
S
19 Dr. Bashir M. Y. NOURI