CONTENTS

Module 4 ....................................................................................................................... 3
Measurement of Angles and Direction .......................................................................... 3
Designation of north points .................................................................................... 5
Definition of horizontal and vertical angles ............................................................ 6
Azimuth.................................................................................................................. 8
Bearing .................................................................................................................. 9
Forward and back azimuths................................................................................. 11
The compass and its types .................................................................................. 12
Module 5 ..................................................................................................................... 18
Traversing and Traverse computations ................................................................... 18
Traverse .............................................................................................................. 19
Purpose of a Traverse ......................................................................................... 20
General class of a traverse .................................................................................. 20
Latitude and Departure ........................................................................................ 21
Error of closure .................................................................................................... 21
Relative error of closure....................................................................................... 22
Traverse adjustment ............................................................................................ 22
Compass Rule ..................................................................................................... 23
Transit rule........................................................................................................... 23
Angle/Bearing Computations and Balancing ....................................................... 31
Co-ordinate Computations ................................................................................... 33
Misclosures and Adjustments .............................................................................. 35
Example: Traverse Computation ......................................................................... 37
The Engineers Transit ......................................................................................... 46
Theodolite and other surveying equipment .......................................................... 48
The total station ................................................................................................... 65
Module 6 ..................................................................................................................... 77
METHODS OF DETERMINING AREAS ..................................................................... 77
Area by triangle.................................................................................................... 77
 Area by coordinates ............................................................................................. 78
DMD Method ....................................................................................................... 80
DPD Method ........................................................................................................ 80
Activity 10 ................................................................................................................ 85
COMPASS TRAVERSE (OPEN) ......................................................................... 85
Activity 11 ................................................................................................................ 91
CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE ....................................................................... 91
Activity 12 ................................................................................................................ 96
LAY OUT OF A BUILDING .................................................................................. 96
ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES .................................................................................... 101
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLE BY REPETITION METHOD ....... 101
DETERMINING AN HEIGHT OF OBJECT BY MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLE
........................................................................................................................... 103
Works Cited .............................................................................................................. 108
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................. 109

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 MODULE 4:

MEASUREMENT OF
ANGLES AND DIRECTION
OBJECTIVES:

• Understands the definition for angle, the difference between azimuths and
bearings, and the use of the compass, transits and advance EDMs.

2
 MODULE 4
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTION

Measuring angles and directions

Angles can be measured with a magnetic compass, of course. Unfortunately, the

Earth's magnetic field does not yield the most reliable measurements. The magnetic
poles are not aligned with the planet's axis of rotation (an effect called magnetic
declination), and they tend to change location over time. Local magnetic anomalies
caused by magnetized rocks in the Earth's crust and other geomagnetic fields make
matters worse.

The angle α is measured from a reference line, which is considered to be 0 °. Such

line is called meridian.

The term "meridian" comes from the Latin meridies, meaning "midday“.

The sun crosses a given meridian midway between the times of sunrise and sunset on
that meridian.

The same Latin term gives rise to the

terms A.M. (Ante Meridian) and P.M.
(Post Meridian) used to disambiguate
hours of the day when using the 12-
hour clock.

A meridian (or line of longitude) is an

imaginary arc on the Earth's surface
3
from the North Pole to the South Pole that connects all locations running along it with
a given longitude.

The position of a point on the meridian is given by the latitude.

The meridian that passes through Greenwich, England, establishes the meaning of
zero degrees of longitude, or the Prime Meridian.

There are three types of meridians:

 Astronomic- direction determined from the shape of the earth and gravity; also
called geodetic north
 Magnetic - direction taken by a magnetic needle at observer’s position
 Assumed - arbitrary direction taken for convenience

Methods for expressing the magnitude of plane angles are: sexagesimal, centesimal,
radians, and mils

Sexagesimal System - The circumference of circles is divided into 360 parts

(degrees); each degree is further divided into minutes and seconds

Sexagesimal (base-sixty) is a numeral system with sixty as the base. It originated

with the ancient Sumerians in the 2,000s BC, was transmitted to the Babylonians, and
is still used in modified form nowadays for measuring time, angles, and geographic
coordinates.

Centesimal System - The circumference of circles is divided

into 400 parts called gon (previously called grads)

Radian - There are 2 radians in a circle

(1 radian = 57.2958° or 57°17′45″ )

Mil - The circumference of a circle is divided into 6,400 parts

(used in military science)

The practical form of this that is easy to remember is: 1 mil at 1 km = 1 meter.

While still talking about horizontal measurements only, the final result will be usually
network of rectangular (cartesian) coordinates.

Vertical angles are usually needed to move over vertical obstacle and for trigonometric
leveling.

4
For these reasons, land surveyors rely on transits (or their more modern equivalents,
called theodolites) to measure angles. A transit consists of a telescope for siting
distant target objects, two measurement wheels that work like protractors for reading
horizontal and vertical angles, and bubble levels to ensure that the angles are true. A
theodolite is essentially the same instrument, except that some mechanical parts are
replaced with electronics.

We can conduct a measurement based on distances only (using tape or EDM) in order
to obtain a map of a surveyed area or to establish BP. Such method is called
trilateration.

With equipment such is a theodolite; we can usually get much more accurate
description of surveyed area. Theodolite is an instrument to measure horizontal and/or
vertical angles.

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

Map users are primarily concerned with the north point for the determination of
directions. The following are the commonly used reference points;
1. True North – is the north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is
portrayed in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole
and is always shown along a vertical line. A star, an asterisk, or the letters TN
symbolizes it. (Figure a)
2. Magnetic North – a north point that is established by means of a magnetized
compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. Magnetic north may
be located either east or west of true north. A half arrowhead or the letters MN usually
symbolizes the point. (Figure b)
3. Grid North – a north point, which is established by lines on a map, which are
parallel to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed toward true
north. A full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y may symbolize grid north. (Figure c)
4. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a small-blackened circle or the letters AN. (Figure d)

5
DEFINITION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ANGLES
Horizontal angles are used to determine bearings and directions in control surveys,
for locating detail when mapping and for setting out all types of structure. Horizon is
parallel to the earth surface, and zenith is perpendicular to the horizon.

Vertical angles are being taken from zenith or horizon, both method are usually
supported by modern instruments. Vertical angles are used when determining the
heights of points and to calculate slope corrections.

Angle can be measured

 clockwise (angle to the right) or

 counterclockwise (angle to the left).
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An exterior angle is one that is not enclosed by the sides of a closed traverse

An interior angle is one enclosed by

sides of a closed traverse

An angle to the right is the

clockwise angle between the
preceding line and the next line
of the a traverse

A deflection angle is the angle between the preceding line and the present one

Further

 Interior angle is measured inside closed polygon,

 exterior angle is measured outside close polygon.

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Sum of interior and exterior angle is 360°

The side of the angle measured needs to be clearly noted in the field book. It is also a
good practice

 to adopt one way only of taking measurements, e.g. always take interior angles;
 to have both interior and exterior angles taken to check values (to avoid
blunders),

AZIMUTH
A common terms used for designating the direction of a line is the azimuth.
From the Arabic as-simt, from as (the) + simt (way)
The azimuth of a line is defined as the clockwise angle from the north end or south
end of the reference meridian.
Azimuths are usually measured from the north end of the meridian
The angles taken in the field have context within the network of points being
measured. They have no relation to earth coordinates. Azimuths are computed
clockwise from geographic north.
When conducting measurement, similar to leveling, we are moving forward to next
points during measurement procedure.
Every line has two azimuths (forward and back) and their values differ by 180°
Azimuth are referred to astronomic, magnetic, or assumed meridian
In the context of backsight, the back azimuth of line AB is sometimes referred.
Back azimuth is taken in a backward direction and is azimuth of BA.

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 1—Azimuth of AB
2—Back azimuth of AB

BEARING
Another method of describing the direction of a line is given its bearing.
The bearing of a line is defined as the smallest angle which that line makes with the
reference meridian
A bearing cannot be greater than 90° (bearings are measured in relation to the north
or south end of the meridian - NE, NW, SE, or SW)

It is convent to say: N90°E is due East, S90°W is due West

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Until the last few decades American surveyors favored the use of bearings over
azimuth, however, with the advent of computers and calculators, surveyors generally
use azimuth today instead of bearings.

Exercise
Fill in the Blanks

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FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS
- Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – a forward
azimuth and a back azimuth.
- These directions differ by 180 degrees from each other since the back azimuth
is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth.
- To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the
following rules are used:
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 degrees,
subtract 180 degrees to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 degrees,
add 180 degrees to determine the back azimuth.
- See Figure and the Table as example below

LINE Obs. Azimuth from south Calc. azimuth from

north

Forward Back Forward Back

AB 23000’ 5000’ 5000’ 23000’

BC 31400’ 13400’ 13400’ 31400’

CD 25500’ 7500’ 7500’ 25500’

DE 16500’ 34500’ 34500’ 16500’

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THE COMPASS AND ITS TYPES
Surveyor’s Compass
Brief History
While the term 'circumferentor' was consistently used to refer to a surveying compass,
a standard form of instrument was not established until the early eighteenth century.
Irish and American makers produced significant numbers of circumferentors in the
eighteenth century. The instrument was more popular in America than in Britain, and in
fact, an entire family of instruments was to develop from the circumferentor in America
in the nineteenth century.

There are some doubts about the identity of the inventor of this instrument but it
seems likely to have been Gemma Frisius in the first half of the sixteenth century.

Used with a chain when traversing, this instrument provided a relatively quick method
of measuring horizontal directions in surveying, but not with the accuracy of a
theodolite. There are two main kinds of
magnetic compass used in surveying, both of
which are included in the collection - the
Surveyor's compass and the Prismatic
compass. The surveyor's compass is usually
the larger and more accurate instrument, and
is generally used on a stand or tripod. The
prismatic compass is often a small
instrument which is held in the hand for
observing, and is therefore employed for less
accurate work.

This surveyor's compass consists of a long, thin, pointed needle of magnetized steel
with a small conical-shaped bearing of agate material at the center. The end of this
needle which points north, the north end, is differentiated from the other end, the south
end, by a small metal pin which passes horizontally through the needle near its north
end. The agate bearing works on a pointed pivot of hard steel carried at the center of
the low cylindrical metal box (140mm in diameter). Attached to the opposite ends of
this box are two sighting vanes with two slow motion screws and clamps which enable
a definite line of sight to be defined or laid out. The instrument can either be screwed
on to a tripod or remain hand-held for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearings.
The metal box carries inside it, three graduated horizontal circles: top and lower circles
0-360 degrees, third circle in quadrants 0-90 degrees, with the N and S directions
identified as zero points and the E and W directions are labelled as 90 degrees each.
The lower horizontal circle can read to 3 minutes directly on the vernier. The azimuths

12
are commonly measured on the top circle clockwise from north through 360 degrees.
A disc of glass, fitting on top of the metal case, protects the needle and graduated
circles.

In this instrument, the needle remains in a fixed position (the position of the magnetic
south to north line), while the two upper graduated circles, together with the line of
sight, rotate about the vertical axis.

Prismatic Compass
This Prismatic Compass is one of the two main kinds of magnetic compasses included
in the collection for the purpose of measuring magnetic bearings, with the other being
the Surveyor's Compass. The main difference between the two instruments is that the
surveyor's compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument, and is
generally used on a stand or tripod. The prismatic compass on the other hand is often
a small instrument which is held in the hand for observing, and is therefore employed
on the rougher classes of work. The graduations on this prismatic compass are
situated on a light aluminium ring fastened to the needle, and the zero of the
graduations coincides with the south point of the needle. The graduations therefore
remain stationary with the needle, and the index turns with the sighting vanes. Since
the circle is read at the observer's (rather than the target's) end, the graduations run
clockwise from the south end of the needle (0˚ to 360˚), whereas in the surveyor's
compass, the graduations run anti-clockwise from north.

The prismatic attachment consists of a 45˚

reflecting prism with the eye and reading faces
made slightly convex so as to magnify the image
of the graduations. The prism is carried on a
mounting which can be moved up and down
between slides fixed on the outside of the case.
The purpose of this up-and-down movement is
to provide an adjustment for focusing. The
image of the graduations is seen through a small
circular aperture in the prism mounting, and
immediately above this aperture is a small V cut
on top of the mounting, over which the vertical wire in the front vane may be viewed.
When the V cut, the vertical wire and the station whose bearing is required are viewed
in one line, the bearing is directly read off the graduated arc at the point immediately
underneath the vertical wire.

The oblong mirror located in front of the forward vane slides up and down the vane,
and is hinged to fold flat over it or to rest inclined at any angle with it. This mirror is
used for solar observations, or for viewing any very high object, and is not a normal
13
fitting to a compass. The two circular discs in front of the back vane are dark glasses
which can be swung in front of the vane when solar observations are being taken.

There are two systems commonly used to express the bearing.

]

WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING:

In this system the bearing of a line measured with the magnetic north in
clockwise direction. The value of bearing thus varies from 0˚ to 360˚.

QUADRANTAL SYSTEM:

In this system the bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from north or
south whichever is near. The directions can be either clock wise or anti clockwise
depending upon the position of the line.

Compass Traverse
 The compass is used with a tripod to ensure that the compass card remains
steady and in focus when readings are being taken.

14
  The tripod should be totally ‘Non-Magnetic’ and should have a male fitting that
will interface with the female socket at the base of the compass.

The Process….

 Mount the compass onto the Tripod.

 Level the compass.
 Raise the ‘Sighting Vane’ to the vertical position View through the ‘Prism’ and
align the ‘Sighting Vane’ and ‘Prism Bracket’ slot with the object to be viewed.
 The sight vane will cut the divisions of the compass card.
 The point at which the compass card is cut represents the magnetic heading.
 A calibration chart will be provided with the compass to indicate the errors of the
compass and the corrections to be made for each 15degree heading (the
compass should be re-calibrated annually)
 To take a second bearing from the same location, the compass can be rotated
on the tripod by loosening the Tripod Clamp screw and rotating the body about
the mounting spigot.
 The compass should be replaced into its storage box after use.

OBSERVING BEARINGS

 The compass centered over station A of the line AB and is leveled.

 Having turned vertically the prism and sighting vane, raise or lower the prism
until the graduations on the rings are clear and look through the prism.
 Turn the compass box until the ranging rod at the station B is bisected by hair
when looked through the prism.
 Turn the compass box above the prism and note the reading at which the
hair line produced appears to cut the images of the graduated ring which gives
the bearing of line AB.

Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

 Every line has two bearings one observed at each end of the line.
 The bearing of the line in the direction of progress of the survey is called Fore
Bearing (FB), while the bearing in the opposite direction is called Back Bearing
(BB).
 Therefore BB of a line differs from FB by exactly 180˚.

15
16
 MODULE 5:

TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
Objectives

At the end of the lecture, the student should be able to:

Define traverse and traverse stations

Enumerate purposes of traverse

Enumerate and differentiate general classes and types of traverse

Identify formulas for traverse adjustments and apply them correctly

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 MODULE 5
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, the student should be able to:
 Define traverse and traverse stations
 Enumerate purposes of traverse
 Enumerate and differentiate general classes and types of traverse
 Identify formulas for traverse adjustments and apply them correctly

TRAVERSING AND TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS

Almost all surveying requires some calculations to reduce measurements into a

more useful form for determining distance, earthwork volumes, land areas, etc.
A traverse is developed by measuring the distance and angles between points
that found the boundary of a site

Traverse computations is the process of taking field measurement through a series

of mathematical calculations to determine final traverse size and configuration. These
calculations include error compensation as well as reformation to determine quantities
not directly measured.

Traditional traverse computation steps are:

1. Balance (adjust) angles

2. Determine line directions
3. Compute latitudes and departures
4. Adjust the traverse misclosure
5. Determine adjusted line lengths and directions
6. Compute coordinates
7. Compute area

The order of some steps can be changed. For example, steps 1 and 2 would be
reversed for closed link traverses with directions at both ends. Balancing angles
would normally not be done If a least squares adjustment is used at step 4.

The complete series of computations can only be performed on closed traverses.

That's because some of the steps require adjustment of errors and, as discussed
before, errors can't be identified in an open traverse.

Closed loop traverse examples will be used to demonstrate the computation steps in
sequence. Once the complete process is covered, we will examine how to perform the
same operations, except for area computations, on closed link traverses.

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 A traditional approach does not need coordinates, even for area determination. Most
software, however does. Whether done manually or with software, the process starts
with initial point coordinates based on the raw field measurements; at each successive
computational step the coordinates are updated reflecting the particular operation. We
will go through a traverse adjustment by coordinates example of using one of the
examples for the traditional approach for comparative purposes.

Traverse computations are concerned with deriving co-ordinates for the new points
that were measured, along with some quantifiable measure for the accuracy of these
positions.

The co-ordinate system most commonly used is a grid based rectangular orthogonal
system of eastings (X) and northings (Y).

Traverse computations are cumulative in nature, starting from a fixed point or known
line, and all of the other directions or positions determined from this reference.

TRAVERSE
A traverse is a series of successive straight lines that are
connected together

Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of

connected survey lines form the framework and the
directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with
the help of an angle measuring instrument and a tape or
chain respectively

It is consists of a series of straight lines connecting

successive points whose lengths and directions have
been determined from field observations

The points defining the ends of traverse lines are called traverse stations or traverse
points.

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PURPOSE OF A TRAVERSE
1. Property surveys to locate or establish boundaries.

2. Supplementary horizontal control for topographic mapping surveys.

3. Location and construction layout surveys for highways, railways and other private
and public works.

4. Ground control surveys for photogrammetric surveys.

GENERAL CLASS OF A TRAVERSE

1. Open Traverse - originates at a point of known position and terminates at a point
of unknown position

2. Closed Traverse - originates at a point of known position and terminates at a point

of known position

Closed Loop Traverse – a closed traverse that originates and terminates at a

single point

Types of Traverse

1. Deflection-angle traverse
2. Interior-angle traverse
3. Traverse by angles to the right
4. Azimuth traverse
5. Compass traverse
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LATITUDE AND DEPARTURE
The closure of a traverse is checked by computing the latitudes and departures of
each of it sides
Latitude is projection of a line onto a reference meridian or North-South line
 Lines with Northerly bearings (+) LAT
 Lines with Southerly bearings (-) LAT
 Equal to distance*cosine of bearing angle

Latitude = d*Cosb

Departure is projection of a line onto a reference parallel or East-West line

 Lines with Easterly bearings (+) DEP

 Lines with Westerly bearings (-) DEP
 Equal to distance*sine of bearing angle

Departure = d*Sineb

ERROR OF CLOSURE
Is usually a short line of unknown length and direction connecting the initial and final
traverse stations

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Note:

In computing for Ɵ, use the absolute values for ∑ and∑ . Determine the
quadrant where the line falls using corresponding signs of the 2 sums.

RELATIVE ERROR OF CLOSURE

Ratio of the linear error of closure to the perimeter or total length of the traverse

Where :

REC = Relative Error of Closure

LEC = Linear Error of Closure

D = Total Length or perimeter of the traverse

TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT
Methods of adjustment are usually classified as:

I. Rigorous

Least Squares Method

II. Approximate

Compass Rule (or Bowditch Rule)

Transit Rule

Crandall Method

22
COMPASS RULE
Named after the distinguished American navigator Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838)
Based on the assumption that:
All lengths are measured with equal care
All angles are taken with approximately the same precision
Errors are accidental
Total error in any side is directly proportional to the length of the traverse

Where,
clat = correction to latitude
cdep= correction to departure
CL= total closure in lat = ∑
CD= total closure in dep= ∑
d = length of any course
D = total length of the traverse

TRANSIT RULE
There is no sound theoretical foundation since it is purely empirical

Not commonly used but best suited for surveys where traverse sides are measured by
stadia or subtensed bar method

Based on the assumption that:

1. Angular measurements are more precise than linear measurements

2. Errors in traversing are accidental

Not applicable in some instances (lines in E , W, N or S)

23
Where:

clat = correction to latitude

cdep= correction to departure
CL= total closure in lat = ∑
CD= total closure in dep= ∑

Traverse Adjustment example

Given:

Compute for:

1. Latitude and Departure of each line

2. Bearing of the side error, LEC, REC
3. Adjust the traverse and compute for the adjusted coordinates of traverse
stations using Compass Rule
4. Adjust the traverse and compute for the adjusted coordinates of traverse
stations using using Transit Rule
5. Provide a sketch of the traverse
Note: coordinates are NA=20,000.000, EA=20,000.000

24
Solution

1. Latitude and Departure for each line

2. Bearing of the side error

Bearing of the side error is S 47o05’ W

25
Linear Error of Closure

Relative Error of Closure

REC = 1/200

3. Traverse Adjustments by Compass Rule

26
27
28
Traverse adjusted by Transit Rule

29
Sketch of the traverse

30
ANGLE/BEARING COMPUTATIONS AND BALANCING
If angles are measured within a traverse, they need to be converted to bearings
(relative to the meridian being used) in order to be used in the traverse computation.

Before the bearings and azimuths are computed, the measured angles are checked
for consistency and to detect any blunders.

For closed traverses, a check can be applied to ensure that the measured angles can
meet the required specifications. For a closed loop traverse with n internal angles, the
check that is used is:

(internal angles) = (n – 2) 180

or

(external angles) = (n + 2) 180

For a closed link traverse, the check is given by

A +(angles) – A = (n – 1) 180
1 2

where A is the initial or starting azimuth, A is the closing or final azimuth, and
1 2
n is the number of angles measured.

The numerical difference between the computed checks and the measured sums is
called the angular misclosure. There is usually a permissible or allowable limit for this
misclosure, depending upon the accuracy requirements and specifications of the
survey. A typical computation for the allowable misclosure  is given by

 = kn

where n is the number of angles measured and k is a fraction based on the least
division of the theodolite scale. For example, if k is 1', for a traverse with 9 measured
angles, the allowable misclosure is 3 '.

Once the traverse angles are within allowable range, the remaining misclosure is
distributed amongst the angles. This process is called balancing the angles :

(i) arbitrary adjustment – if misclosure is small, then it may be inserted into any
angle arbitrarily (usually one that may be suspect). If no angle suspect, then it can be
inserted into more than one angle.
31
(ii) average adjustment – misclosure is divided by number of angles and
correction inserted into all of the angles. (most common technique)

(iii) adjustment based on measuring conditions – if a line has particular

obstruction that may have affected observations, misclosure may be divided and
inserted into the two angles affected.

 Errors in angular measurement are not related to the size of the angle.
 Once the angles have been balanced, they can be used to compute the
azimuths of the lines in the traverse.
 Starting from the azimuth of the original fixed control line, the internal or
clockwise measured angles are used to compute the forward azimuths of the
new lines.
 The azimuth of this line is then used to compute the azimuth of the next line and
so on.

The general formula that is used to compute the azimuths is:

forward azimuth of line = back azimuth of previous line + clockwise (internal)

angle

The back azimuth of a line is computed from

back azimuth = forward azimuth  180

Therefore for a traverse from points 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5, if the angles measured at 2, 3

and 4 are 100, 210, and 190 respectively, and the azimuth of the line from 1 to 2 is
given as 160, then

Az23 = Az21 + angle at 2 = (160 +180) + 100 = 440  80

Az34 = Az32 + angle at 3 = (80+180) +210 = 470 110

Az45 = Az43 + angle at 4 = (110+180) +190 = 480 120

32
Once all of the azimuths have been computed, they can be checked and used for the
co-ordinate computations.

CO-ORDINATE COMPUTATIONS

33
Alternative layout

34
MISCLOSURES AND ADJUSTMENTS
For closed traverses, since the co-ordinates of the final ending station are known, this
provides a mathematical check on the computation of the co-ordinates for all of the
other points. If the final computed eastings and northings are compared to the known
eastings and northings for the closing station, then co-ordinate misclosures can be
determined. The easting misclosure E is given by

E = final computed easting – final known easting

similarly, the northing misclosure N is given by

N = final computed northing – final known northing

Linear Misclosure

These discrepancies represent the difference on the ground between the position of
the point computed from the observations and the known position of the point.

The easting and northing misclosures are combined to

give the linear misclosure of the traverse, where
2 2
linear misclosure = (E + N )

By itself the linear misclosure only gives a measure of

how far the computed position is from the actual position
(accuracy of the traverse measurements).

Another parameter that is used to provide an indication of the relative accuracy of the
traverse is the proportional linear misclosure.

Here, the linear misclosure is divided by total distance measured, and this figure is
expressed as a ratio e.g. 1 : 10000.

In the example given, if the total distance measured along a traverse is 253.56m, and
the linear misclosure is 0.01m, then the proportional linear misclosure is

0.01/253.56 = 1/25356 or approximately 1 : 25000

35
The required accuracy of the survey in terms of its proportional linear misclosure also
defines the equipment and allowable misclosure values.

For example, for a traverse with an accuracy of better than 1/5000 would require a
distance measurement technique better than 1/5000, and an angular error that is
consistent with this figure.

If the accuracy is restricted to 1/5000, then the maximum

angular error is

1/5000 = tan

 = 000'41"

The angular measurement for each angle should therefore be better than 000'41".
The general relationship between the linear and angular error is given by the following
table:

36
EXAMPLE: TRAVERSE COMPUTATION

Step 1
Balancing Angles: Misclosure errors must be distributed over the interior angles of the
traverse by:
1. Dividing the total error by the number of angle and applying the same error to
each interior angle.
2. Making larger corrections for poor setup locations such as areas where tripod
might settle (boggy spot), or instrument step up was difficult.

37
Step 2
Calculate Azimuths: To calculate latitudes and departures preliminary azimuths are
required these azimuths will be adjusted later. Here’s a clockwise example where we

38
39
Calculate latitude and Departure
1. Latitudes - the N-S component or Y with North (+) and South (-).
2. Departures - the E-W component or X with East (+) and West (-)

40
41
42
Corrected latitude and departure

Calculate Northing and Easting

43
44
45
The Engineers Transit
The engineer’s transit is often called the universal survey instrument because of its
uses. It may be used for measuring horizontal angles and directions, vertical angles,
and differences in elevations; for prolonging straight lines; and for measuring distances
by stadia. Although transits of various manufacturers differ in appearance, they are
alike in their essential parts and operations.

The engineer’s transit contains several hundred parts. For-descriptive purposes, these
parts may be grouped into three assemblies: the leveling head assembly, the lower
plate assembly, and the upper many plate or alidade assembly.

Leveling Head Assembly

The leveling head of the transit normally is the four-screw type, constructed so the
instrument can be shifted on the foot plate for centering over a marked point on the
ground.

Parts of the engineer’s transit

46
 Exploded view of an engineer’s transit

Lower Plate Assembly

The lower plate assembly of the transit consists of a hollow spindle that is
perpendicular to the center of a circular plate and accurately fitted the socket in the
leveling head. The lower plate contains the graduated horizontal circle on which the
values of horizontal angles are read with the aid of two verniers, A and B, set on the
opposite sides of the circle. A clamp controls the rotation of the lower plate and
provides a means for locking it in place. A slow-motion tangent screw is used to rotate
the lower plate a small amount to relative to the leveling head. The rotation
accomplished by the use of the lower clamp and tangent screw is known as the
LOWER MOTION. (Integrated Publishing, Inc.)

47
THEODOLITE AND OTHER SURVEYING EQUIPMENT.
Aims:

 Understand that theodolites and total stations measure horizontal and vertical
angles

 Assess the accuracy of a theodolites and total station for site work

 Describe all the components of a theodolites and explain how these are used
when measuring and setting out angles

 Outline the differences between electronic and optical theodolites

 Describe the field procedures that are used to set up and measure angles with
a theodolites or total station

 Book and calculate horizontal and vertical angles from theodolites readings

 Understand the sources of error in using a theodolites and how to control these.

Theodolite
Theodolite is a telescope mounted on horizontal and vertical protractors. Its purpose is
to measure vertical and/or horizontal angles.

Precision depends on the type and is usually from

 ±0.1 seconds (good quality theodolite used for geodetic survey) to

 ±0.1 minutes (i.e. 6 seconds—typical theodolite).

Theodolite can be used to evaluate horizontal readings for leveling but usually with
lower accuracy than level instrument will do.

Theodolites are precision instruments used for measuring angles; electronic

theodolites read and display angles automatically. Optical theodolites need to be read
manually. Both are usually classified according to the smallest reading that the
instrument displays, this varies from 1’ to 0.1’.

Look into the history

48
The Great Theodolite

The Great 3 foot Theodolite from 1785 by Ramsden

In 1782 Jesse Ramsden started 3 years project of theodolite (picture above), later
known as The Great Theodolite. The First Great Theodolite was nearly 1 m in
diameter, and its weight was 90 kg.

It could read horizontal angles with accuracy of 1 second and vertical angles with
accuracy of 5 seconds by means of attached microscopes. It served at least several
years until lightweight, The Second Great Theodolite, was invented by Ramsden.

49
Classic mechanical theodolite

Classic mechanical theodolite from 1910 by Ertel

On the picture above is a mechanical double circle theodolite from 1910. Its telescope
length is 29 cm. Mechanical theodolites use more circles (vernier) to enhance
precision of reading:

Vernier: a scale used to improve the precision of reading

Tripod setup

 Equipment has to be set precisely over BP. Use handlevel, setup the tripod
over the positioning mark at a convenient height.

 Suspend the plumb-bob or release the laser mark (depends on the model).

 Re-adjust the tripod over the positioning mark by moving all three tripod feet
by the same amount in the same direction.
50
  Firmly fix the tripod. Press the legs into the ground.

Setting up tripod (from Leica T105/T110 user manual

Theodolite setup

All parts of equipment are made of precise quality and must be always taken with
increased care. That applies especially for theodolite (but applies surveying equipment
in general).

51
 Setting up tripod (from Leica T105/T110 user manual

 Place the theodolite on the tripod head, screw centering screw while holding
instrument. Let the position be loose so theodolite still can slide around
tripod head.

 Looking through the optical plummet, focus the centering index mark. Slide the
theodolite on the tripod head until the reference mark is centered in the
optical plummet.

 Fully tighten the centering screw.

Look through the optical plummet again and adjust the theodolite foot screws for
alignment with the reference mark.

Level the theodolite

Once the theodolite is leveled, double check optical plummet to make sure it is still
centered. If not, repeat steps above.

Measuring horizontal angle

 When theodolite is setup, point to backsight (BS).

 Zero the instrument. Write actual zero into field book (might be not exact zero).

 Free the motion and point to foresight (FS).

52
  Tighten the motion and use screw for fine adjustment.

 Read the angle, write into field book.

 The target (measured) point must be clearly marked for observing.

A target may be made visible by cord (rope) with plumb-bob.

Example (precision): let assume precision of theodolite is 5"

and target is at a distance of 100 m. Then 5" at 100 m is
equivalent to 2.5 mm (that is 1:40,000).

Example illustrates, that theodolite is high precise

instrument. For measuring angles we can not expect that
holding a rod on target point (as in case of leveling) is
sufficient. We have to use plumb-bob with visible line to
allow clear reading. We have to pay attention to precise
setup the instrument over station as well.

Measured target has to be marked clearly with plumb-bob and line. In a case a rod is
used, to eliminated errors, point the telescope and make the reading close to the
ground.

Measuring horizontal angles by repetition (mechanical theodolite)

More reliable reading of angle value is made by repeating the measurements. The first
angle is taken and written into field book. Then telescope is pointed back to BS (with
locked motion of value). Measurement to FS is made again then, angle is
accumulated. Usually after finishing 6 cycles angle is written into field book again.
The accumulated angle size is divided by 6 to figure out value of angle.

Measuring horizontal angles by repetition (digital theodolite)

More reliable reading of angle value is made by repeating the measurement. The first
angle is taken from BS to FS and written into field book. Then telescope is rotated
against trunnion axis and pointed to FS. Measurement back to BS is made again then
and the result is taken as an average of both angles taken..

Station B BS to A FS to C Angle ABC

53
 Reading from left 0° 00' 00" 33° 27' 15" 33° 27' 15"

Reading from right 180° 00' 15" 213° 27' 20" 33° 27' 05"

Average 33° 27' 10"

Horizon closure

Usually more angles are taken from one setup. It is a good practice to measure
unused angle too and make check that all angles sum to 360 °.

Such procedure (closing the horizon) can be applied even when only one angle is
measured.

Measuring horizontal angle: horizon closure

If the sum is close to 360 °, error can be divided by count of angles to make
corrections (chances of reading errors are the same for each angle, don't depend on
angle size).

If the sum is far from 360 °, blunder has been achieved, and measurement needs to
be repeated.

Measuring vertical angle

Vertical angle is taken either from zenith (position at 0 °) or horizon (position at 90 °).
Depends on the instrument if the angle of elevation or depression has to be converted
manually (from zenith angle) or not.

For accurate work, it is best to measure a vertical angle at least twice: once direct,
once reversed and average the result. (Miroslav Stibor, 2013)

54
Total stations are precision instruments that can measure angles and distances.

These are classified according to their angle and distance measuring capability. The
figure below shows two points A and B and a theodolite or total station T set up on a
tripod above a ground point G. Point A is higher than the instrument and is above the
horizontal plane through T, whereas B is lower and below the horizontal plane. At T,
the instrument is mounted a vertical distance h above G on its tripod The horizontal
angle at T between A and B is not the angle in the sloping plane containing A, T and
B, but the angle θ on the horizontal plane through T between the vertical planes
containing the lines of sight TA and TB.

The vertical angles to A and B from T are αA (an angle of elevation) and αB (angle of
depression).

Another angle often referred to is the zenith angle. This is defined as the angle in the
vertical plane between the direction vertically above the instrument and the line of
sight for example zA

Accuracy of angle measurement

So that they can be used to measure angles, theodolites and total stations have to be
centered over a point and they must also be leveled to bring their angle reading
systems into the horizontal and vertical planes.

When assessing the relationship between angular and linear precisions the following
are useful:

20″ is equivalent to 10 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m

55
 10″ is equivalent to 5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m

5″ is equivalent to 2.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m

1″ is equivalent to 0.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m

Based on these, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified for site work up to a distance of 100
m, a 10″ theodolite (or total station) is required.

By simple proportion, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified but the maximum distance to

be set out was 50 m, a 20″ instrument is sufficient. A high specification theodolite or
total station is not needed for most site work (setting out).

The only time a high precision is required (5″, 1″) is for establishing control or on
special construction projects demanding high quality positioning. E.g. Dams, Nuclear
Power Plants, etc.

Care has to be taken when assessing the requirement for angular precision in this way
as the minimum reading on a theodolite (or total station) is not the same as its
accuracy. Always read through the technical specification of the instrument to find out
what its accuracy is quoted as by the manufacturer

Don’t forget to make an allowance for centering and sighting errors when assessing
angular precisions

Electronic Theodolites

56
Electronic components

The horizontal and vertical angle measuring systems fitted into electronic theodolites
are made of glass circles with binary codes etched onto them. Light is passed through
these and the pattern emerging is proportional to the angle through which the
theodolite has been rotated.

This is detected by an incremental encoder

which converts the varying light intensity into
digital signals. These are converted into an
angular output by a microprocessor which is
accessed through a keyboard and display.

Optical Theodolites

These instruments also measure horizontal

and vertical angles and have features very
similar to electronic theodolites. BUT, their
reading systems are very different and rely on manual operation and recording.

When taking a reading light is directed into the instrument and is passed through the H
and V circles.

The images of the circles (and hence angle readings) are viewed through a special
reading telescope situated next to the main telescope.

There are 3 types of reading system in use:

 Single reading optical micrometer system – a reading is made up to two parts a

circle reading added to a micrometer reading.

 A micrometer screw (located on the standards of the theodolites) is adjusted to

the nearest degree mark to give the full reading.

 Double reading optical micrometer system – here a micrometer screw is

adjusted until all the lines seen in the upper part of the measuring telescope are
coincident.

Measuring angles and setting out angles

Setting up a theodolite

57
This is carried out in three stages: Centering the theodolites; Leveling the theodolites;
Removal of parallax. The following procedure is recommended where it is assumed
that the theodolite is to be centered over a nail in the top of a peg. This is a typical
point or reference mark used in construction and setting out.

Leaving the instrument in its case, the tripod is first set up over the peg. The legs of
the tripod are placed an equal distance from the peg and are extended to suit the
height of the observer. The tripod head should be made as level as possible by eye.
Standing back a few paces from the tripod, the center of the tripod head is checked to
see if it is vertically above the peg – this should be done by eye from two directions at
right angles.

If the tripod is not centered, each leg is moved a distance equal to the amount the
tripod is judged to be off center and in the same direction in which it is not center. It is
important to keep the tripod head level when changing its position

When the tripod has been centered in this way, the tripod legs are pushed firmly into
the ground.

If one foot goes in more than the others making the tripod head go off level, this can
be allowed for by loosening the clamp of the tripod leg affected, adjusting the length
and then re-clamping.

The theodolite is carefully taken out of its case, its exact position being noted to help in
replacement, and it is securely attached to the tripod head.

Whenever carrying a theodolite, always hold it by the standards and not the telescope.
Never let go of the theodolite until it is firmly screwed onto the tripod.

The ground mark under the theodolite is now observed through the optical plummet.
The plummet is adjusted such that the nail in the peg and the plummet’s reference
mark are seen together in clear focus.

By adjusting the three footscrews, the image of the nail seen through the plummet is
moved until it coincides with the reference mark. If the instrument is fitted with a laser
plummet, the footscrews are adjusted so that the beam is centered on the ground
mark (nail).

The circular bubble on the tribrach is now centered by adjusting the length of individual
tripod legs, as required at this stage; the theodolite is almost centered and is almost
level. To level the instrument exactly, the plate level is used.

58
The procedure for this is as follows and is the only one recommended for a three-
footscrew instrument. To level a theodolite it is rotated until the plate level axis is
parallel to the line through any two footscrews as shown

These two footscrews are turned until the plate bubble is brought to the center of its
run. The leveling footscrews should be turned in opposite directions simultaneously,
remembering that the bubble will move in a direction corresponding to the movement
of the thumb. The instrument is turned 90° and the bubble center again but using the
third footscrew only.This process is repeated in both positions until the plate level
bubble is central in both positions. The instrument is now turned until the plate is in a
position 180°from the first. If the plate level bubble is still in the center of its run, the
theodolite is level and no further adjustment is needed.

If the bubble is not centered, it has an error

equal to half the amount the bubble has run off
center. If, for example, the bubble moves off
center by two plate level divisions to the left,
the error in the bubble is one to the left. If the
plate level has an error, the theodolite is
returned to its original position and the plate
level bubble is moved off center an amount
equal to the error in the bubble.

This is done using the two footscrews in line with the

axis of the level. Using the example already quoted,
the bubble would be placed one division to the left.
The instrument is then turned 90°and the plate level
bubble is again moved off center an amount equal to
the error in the bubble but using the third foot screw.
Once again, the bubble would be placed one division
to the left.

The instrument is now slowly rotated through

360°and the plate level bubble should remain in the same position throughout (one
division to the left in this case)

The theodolite has now been leveled and the vertical axis with the vertical through the
instrument when the theodolite has been leveled and centered, parallax is eliminated
by accurately focusing the cross hairs of the telescope against a light background and
focusing the instrument on a distant target. At this stage the theodolite is ready for
59
reading angles or for setting out. If any point is occupied for a long time, it is
necessary to check the leveling and centering at frequent intervals, especially when
working on soft ground or in hot sunshine.

All of the procedures given in this section for setting up a theodolite are also used
when centering and leveling a total station. They are also used for setting up a tripod-
mounted GPS antenna or laser scanner over a control point.

Measuring angles

When a theodolite has been leveled and centered over a control horizontal and vertical
angles can be measured to other points. For example, the horizontal and vertical
angels to X, Y and Z from W can be measured:

In order to be able to measure angles to these it may be

necessary to establish targets at X, Y and Z. Targets can
be tripod mounted, pole mounted or hand held. Booking
angles

WXYZ example

Starting with the horizontal angles at W, one point is

chosen as the reference object (RO). Point X is chosen
and angles are referred to this point i.e. The angles XWY
and XWZ. To begin, a reading is set along the RO direction in the Face Left Position,
and is recorded in the Face Left (FL) column (the theodolite can be zeroed in this
position is required).

Points Y and Z are then sighted and FL readings of 17° 22’10’’ and 83°58’50’’ are
recorded. The telescope is transited so that the theodolite is now in the face right
position and the horizontal angles are recorded again in reverse order Z,Y and X.

At this stage one set of angles has been completed. The theodolite is changed back
to face left and sighted at Point X. The horizontal circle is set to a different reading
from the first reading of X 45°12’30’’ in this case, such that the degrees minutes and
seconds are different.

The process is repeated as before with FL and FR readings are taken. Repeating this
process is carried out to detect and minimize errors in the survey. The procedure for
measuring the vertical or zenith angles is similar to that for the horizontal angles
expect the vertical circle used in this case. Reducing angles WXYZ example; the face
left and face right measurements are first averaged to obtain the mean horizontal
60
readings. To simplify these calculations the degrees of the face left readings are
carried through and only the minutes and seconds are averaged.

The horizontal angles are then reduced to the RO by subtracting its reading. The final
horizontal readings are obtained by taking the average of the two rounds.

In this case for the vertical readings the vertical circle was set at 0°at the zenith angle.
When reducing zenith angles it is usual to convert them to vertical angles as follows:

 FL vertical angle = 90°- zenith angle

 FR vertical angle = FR zenith angle - 270°

 On the booking form these are computed by:

 Reduced face left = 90°- face left

 Reduced face right = Face right – 270°

 Each final vertical angle is then obtained by average the reduced FL and
FR values.

Final check for errors are carried following these calculations, firstly each FL and FR
reading should differ by 180°. Secondly, considering minutes and seconds only the
difference (FL – FR) is computed, e.g. For the first round of horizontal readings.

Station (FL-FR)

X -00’40’’

Y -01’00’’

Z -01’10’’

Assuming a 10’’ theodolite was used this is satisfactory as the reading taken should
agree to within 30’’ for each point. For the vertical circle readings the FR and FL
values should sum to 360°. In this example:

Station (FL + FR)

X 88°10’30’’ + 270°51’20’’ = 360°01’50’’

Y 360°02’20’’

Z 360°02’00’’

61
All of these values agree very closely and therefore the readings are consistent and
acceptable.

All the procedures given above for measuring angles are also used with to measure
angles with a total station. Setting out angles Line extensions

For some types of construction work, it is often necessary to prolong a straight line AB.

The theodolite is set up at B and point A is sighted on face left. Keeping the horizontal
clamp locked, the telescope is transited to face right and because the instrument is
likely to have a horizontal collimation error, point C’ is established on the line of sight
instead of C.

The horizontal clamp is now released, the instrument is rotated and A sighted once
again. When the telescope is transited back to face left, point C’’ is established next to
C’. Point C is midway between C’ and C’’. Grids or intermediate points

To set out intermediate points in between two fixed points A and B, a theodolite is set
up at A, B is sighted on either face and all intervening points can then established
directly on the line sight of the telescope. A good example of this on site occurs when
establishing column or other positions on such a grid. In this case, two theodolites
positions are fixed at the intersection of these two lines.

Sources of error

If the instrument is in perfect adjustment, the axis of the plate level vial should be
perpendicular to the vertical axis. The line of sight (collimation) should be
perpendicular to the tilting axis. The tilting axis should be perpendicular to the vertical
axis.

This configuration is rarely achieved in practice and any variation from these
conditions will cause errors in observed angles. The effects of these errors can be
removed by adjustment, calibration or by using suitable field procedures. Errors in the
equipment: Plate level not in adjustment

The purpose of leveling a theodolite or total station is to make its vertical axis coincide
with the vertical through the instrument. If the plate level is not in adjustment, it is
possible that when the instrument appears to be level and the plate level bubble
centered, the vertical axis may be tilted. If the instrument is not level, it is not possible
to remove any errors caused by this when observing and setting angles on both faces.

62
If the theodolite is leveled electronically, it will usually be fitted with a dual-axis
compensator and it can calculate corrections for any errors caused by vertical axis tilt
and will apply these to displayed horizontal and vertical angles.

However, the compensator itself may be out of adjustment. To correct for this, an on-
board electronic calibration can be carried out in which the compensator index errors
are measured and then automatically applied to all readings.

It can be shown that the error in horizontal angles caused by the theodolite not being
level is proportional to the tangent of the vertical angle of the line of sight.

Consequently, it is important to ensure that the theodolite is carefully leveled for any
steep sightings such as those taken to tall buildings and into deep excavations when
on site.

Errors in the equipment: Horizontal collimation error

This error occurs when the line of sight is not perpendicular to the tilting axis -this
detected by taking face left and faces right horizontal circle readings to the same point
– if these do not differ by exactly 180˚, the theodolite has a horizontal collimation error.

The error is removed by taking the average of face left and face right readings to any
given point and by taking the mid-point when setting out angles on both faces. It can
also be removed in an electronic calibration.

Errors in the equipment: Tilting Axis not horizontal

If the tilting axis of the theodolite is not perpendicular to the vertical axis, it will not be
horizontal when the theodolite has been leveled. Since the telescope rotates about the
tilting axis it will not move in a vertical plane which will give rise to errors in measured
horizontal angles.

As with the horizontal collimation error, this error is also removed by taking the
average of face left and face right readings, by setting out on two faces or by carrying
out an electronic calibration on the instrument.

Errors in the equipment : Vertical Collimation error

When a theodolite is leveled, it is assumed that the automatic vertical circle index sets
the vertical circle to read 90˚ when horizontal on face left and 270˚when horizontal on
face right. To detect this error, the same point is sighted on face left and face right and
a vertical circle reading taken – when added these should be exactly 360˚ or a vertical
collimation error is present in the theodolite

63
The vertical collimation error is cancelled by taking the mean of face left and face right
readings. To remove this error, an electronic calibration can be carried out

Errors in the equipment: Plummet error

The line of collimation of an optical or laser plummet must coincide with the vertical
axis of the theodolite. Tests should be carried out on site to check this.

Errors in the equipment: Tripods and Tribach

The clamping mechanism and circular bubbles of tribrachs should be checked

regularly. All of the parts of a tripod should also be inspected regularly to check that
they have not become loose.

Field or on site errors: Instrument not leveled properly

 Failure to level a theodolite properly will cause the vertical axis to be tilted If the
instrument has been poorly leveled, errors will occur in measured angles that
are not eliminated by observing on face left and face right.

 Although instruments fitted with dual-axis compensators can correct for the
effects of a tilted vertical axis, it is still good practice to take some care when
leveling theodolites that have a compensator. If a theodolite is found to be off
level whilst measuring or setting out an angle, it is best to re-level the
instrument and repeat the measurements

Field or on site errors: Mis-centering

 If a theodolite is not centered exactly over a point incorrect horizontal angles will
be measured. This error increases as the line of sight gets shorter,
consequently, great care must be taken with centering when sighting over the
short distances that are often used on site and in engineering surveying.

 The same errors can occur if a tripod mounted target is not centered properly
and when a detail pole is either mis-centered or is not held vertical.

Field or on site errors: not using theodolite properly

 Make sure parallax is removed

 Change the focus for each target sighted

 Use the tangent (slow motion) screws to intersect targets

64
  Don’t lean on the tripod

Field or on site errors: ground and weather conditions

 Avoid setting the instrument up on soft ground

 When working in hot sunshine shade the instrument

 Do not take measurements when refraction is a problem

 Let the instrument adjust to atmospheric conditions

 Observing and setting out angles in windy conditions is not recommended

THE TOTAL STATION

A total station consists of a theodolite with a built-in distance meter (distancer), and so
it can measure angles and distances at the same time. Today’s electronic total
stations all have an opto-electronic distance meter (EDM) and electronic angle
scanning.

The coded scales of the horizontal and vertical circles are scanned electronically, and
then the angles and distances are displayed digitally. The horizontal distance, the
height difference and the coordinates are calculated automatically and all
measurements and additional information can be recorded.

Total stations are supplied with a software package that enables most survey tasks to
be carried out easily, quickly and elegantly. The most important of these pro-grams are
presented in the section "Applications programs". Total stations are used wherever the
positions and heights of points, or merely their positions, need to be determined.

Measuring angles

An angle represents the difference between two directions. The horizontal angle α
between the two directions leading to the points P1and P2 is independent of the height
difference between those points, provided that the telescope always moves in a strictly
vertical plane when tilted, whatever its horizontal orientation. This stipulation is met
only under ideal conditions.

The vertical angle (also termed the zenith angle) is the difference between a
prescribed direction (namely the direction of the zenith) and the direction to the point
under consideration.

65
The vertical angle is therefore correct only if the zero reading of the vertical circle lies
exactly in the zenith direction, and also this stipulation is met only under ideal
conditions.

Deviations from the ideal case are

caused by axial errors in the instrument
and by inadequate levelling-up (refer to
section: "Instrument errors").

Z1 = zenith angle to P1

Z2 = zenith angle to P2

α = Horizontal angle

between the two directions leading to the

points P1 and P2, i.e. the angle between

two vertical planes formed by dropping

perpendiculars from P1 and P2
respectively

Setting up the instrument anywhere

1. Extend the legs of the tripod as far as is required and tighten the screws firmly.

2. Set up the tripod so that the tripod plate is as horizontal as possible and the legs of
the tripod are firm in the ground.

3. Now, and only now, place the instrument on the tripod and secure it with the central
fixing screw.

Levelling-up the instrument

After setting up the instrument, level it up

approximately with the bull’s-eye bubble. Turn two
of the footscrews together in opposite directions.
The index finger of your right hand indicates the
direction in which the bubble should move. (figure
a)

Now use the third footscrew to centre the bubble

(figure b). To check, rotate the instrument 180°.
66
Afterwards, the bubble should remain within the setting circle. If it does not, then
readjustment is required.

For a level, the compensator automatically takes care of the final

levelling-up. The compensator consists basically of a thread-
suspended mirror that directs the horizontal light beam to the center
of the crosshair even if there is residual tilt in the telescope. (figure c)

If now you lightly tap a leg of the

tripod, then (provided the bull’s-eye
bubble is centered) you will see how
the line of sight swings about the
staff reading and always steadies at
the same point. This is the way to test whether or not the
compensator can swing freely.

67
Measuring with a total station
Plumbing down from a height point

Plumbing down from a height point, plumbing up from a ground point, and inspecting a
vertical line on a structure, can be carried out exactly in just one telescope face, but
only if the telescope describes a precisely-vertical plane when it is tilted. To ascertain
that this is so, proceed as follows:

1. Target a high point A, then tilt the telescope downwards and mark the ground point
B.

2. Transit the telescope, and repeat the procedure in the second face. Mark the point
C.

The mid-point between the points B and C is the exact plumbing point.
68
The reason why these two points do not coincide can be a tilting-axis error and/or an
inclined vertical axis.

For work of this type, make sure that the total station has been levelled up precisely,
so that the influence of vertical-axis tilt on steep sights is minimized.

Surveys (polar method)

To create e.g. a location plan, the position and height of a point on the object are
determined by measuring angles and distances. To do this, the instrument is set up on
any prominent point in a local coordinate system. A second prominent point is selected
for the purposes of orientation; after this has been targeted the horizontal circle is set
to zero.

If a coordinate system already exists, set up the instrument on a known point within it
and line up the horizontal circle with a second known point.

69
Instrument errors in the total station

Ideally, the total station should meet the following requirements:

a) Line of sight ZZ perpendicular to tilting axis KK

b) Tilting axis KK perpendicular to vertical axis VV

c) Vertical axis VV strictly vertical

d) Vertical-circle reading precisely zero at the zenith

If these conditions are not met, the following terms are

used to describe the particular errors:

a) Line-of-sight error, or collimation error c (deviation

from the right angle between the line of sight and the
tilting axis)

b) Tilting-axis error a (deviation from the right angle between the tilting axis and the
vertical axis)

c) Vertical-axis tilt (angle between plumb line and vertical axis).

70
The effects of these three errors on the measurement of horizontal angles increase
with the height difference between the target points. Taking measurements in both
telescope faces eliminates line-of-sight errors and tilting-axis errors.

The line-of-sight error (and, for highly-precise total stations, also the g-axis error,
which is generally very small) can also be determined and stored. These errors are
then taken into consideration automatically whenever an angle is measured, and then
it is possible to take measurements practically free of error even using just one
telescope face. The determination of these errors, and their storage, are described in
detail in the appropriate user manual. Vertical-axis tilt does not rate as being an
instrument error; it arises because the instrument has not been adequately leveled up,
and measuring in both telescope faces cannot eliminate it. Its influence on the
measurement of the horizontal and vertical angles is automatically corrected by means
of a two-axis compensator.

d) Height-index error i (the angle between the zenith direction and the zero reading of
the vertical circle, i.e. the vertical-circle reading when using a horizontal line of sight),
is not 100 gon (90°), but 100 gon + i. By measuring in both faces and then averaging,
the index error is eliminated; it can also be determined and stored.

Note:

The instrument errors change with temperature, as a result of vibration, and after long
periods of transport. If you want to measure in just one face, then immediately before
the measurements you must determine the instrument errors and store them.

71
APPLICATION USING TOTAL STATION

Calculating areas

1. Set up the total station in the terrain so that it is within view of the entire area to be
surveyed. It is not necessary to position the horizontal circle.

2. Determine the boundary points of the area sequentially in the clockwise direction.
You must always measure a distance.

3. Afterwards, the area is calculated automatically at the touch of a button and is

displayed.

Staking out

1. Set up the instrument at a known point and position the horizontal circle (refer to the
section "Setting the station” in the user manual).

2. Enter manually the coordinates of the point to be staked out. The program
automatically calculates direction and distance (the two parameters needed for staking
out).

3. Turn the total station until the horizontal circle reads zero.

4. Position the reflector at this point (point P’).

5. Measure the distance; the difference in the distance ∆D to the point P will be
displayed automatically.

72
Alternatively, the coordinates of the points to be staked out can be transferred
beforehand, back in the office, from the computer to the total station. Under these
circumstances, in order to stake out, only the point number then needs to be entered.

Remote heights

1. Set up a reflector vertically beneath that point the height of which is to be

determined. The total station itself can be situated anywhere.

2. Measure the distance to the reflector.

3. Target the high

point.

4. The height
difference H between
the ground point and
the high point is now
calculated at the
touch of a button and
is displayed.

73
Tie distances

The program determines the distance and height difference between two points.

1. Set up the total station at any location.

2. Measure the distance to each of the two points A and B.

3. The distance D and the height difference H are displayed at the touch of a button.

Free-station surveys

This program calculates the position and height of the instrument station, along with
the orientation of the horizontal circle, from measurements to at least two points, the
coordinates of which are known.

The coordinates of the tie points can be entered manually or they can be stored in the
instrument beforehand.

Free stationing has the great advantage that, for large projects involving surveying or
staking out, you can choose the most favorable station for the instrument. You are no
longer forced to use a known point that is in an unsatisfactory location.

The options for measuring, and the measuring procedure, are described in detail in the
user manuals.

74
Note:

When performing survey tasks that involve determining heights or staking them out,
always remember to take the height of the instrument and that of the reflector into
account.

75
MODULE 6:

AREA COMPUTATION

76
 MODULE 6
METHODS OF DETERMINING AREAS
 Areas of land come in different shapes
 Some areas may be in the shape of a regular geometric figure, such as square,
triangle, or parallelogram.
 Others may be quite irregular and may be bounded entirely by curved boundaries
 The hectare (Ha) is the most commonly used SI unit of area
1 hectare = 10,000 sq.m.

Methods used in determining areas

1. use of triangles
2. the trapezoidal rule
3. Simpson’s one-third rule
4. The coordinate method
5. The Double Meridian Distance (DMD) or Double Parallel Distance (DPD) method
6. Coordinate squares
7. Planimeter

AREA BY TRIANGLE

77
AREA BY COORDINATES

78
 COORDINATES

CORNER TOTAL TOTAL

DEPARTURE LATITUDE

A x1 y1

B x2 y2

C x3 y3

D x4 y4

Area of ABCD = Area of trapezoid aABb

+ Area of Trapezoid bBCc
- Area of Trapezoid aADd
- Area of Trapezoid dDCc

79
DMD METHOD

Double Area (2A) = DMD x Adjusted

Latitude
Area (A) = (1/2)( DMD x Adjusted Latitude)

The following three rules provide a means

of computing the DMD for each course of a
traverse:

RULE 1: The DMD of the first course is

equal to the departure of the course.
RULE 2: The DMD of any other course is
equal to the DMD of the preceding course,
plus the departure of the preceding course,
plus the departure of the course itself.
RULE 3: The DMD of the last course is
numerically equal to the departure of that
course, but with the opposite sign.

DPD METHOD

Double Area (2A) = DMD x Adjusted Departure

Area (A) = (1/2)( DMD x Adjusted Departure)

Correspondingly, the following rules also provide a means of computing the DPD for
each course of a traverse.

RULE 1: The DPD of the first course is equal to the latitude of the course.
RULE 2: The DPD of any other course is equal to the DPD of the preceding course,
plus the latitude of the preceding course, plus the latitude of the course itself.
RULE 3: The DPD of the last course is numerically equal to the latitude of that course
but with the opposite sign.
RULE 3: The DMD of the last course is numerically equal to the departure of that
course, but with the opposite sign.

80
SAMPLE:

1. Given the figure below:

Solve for the Area Using DMD and DPD method

81
DMD METHOD

Computation of DMD (Refer to the rules of the computing DMD)

DMD ab = 47.27
DMD bc = 47.27 + 47.27 + 608.89 = 703.43
DMD cd = 703.43 + 608.89 + 786.78 = 2099.10
DMD de = 2099.10 + 786.78 + 218.32 = 3104.20
DMS ef = 3104 + 218.32 -1116.62 = 2205.90
DMD fa = 2205.90 – 1116.62 -544.64 = 544.64
Computation of double areas DOUBLE AREA = DMD X Adj Lat.
DA ab = 47.27 x 490.71 = 23 195.86
DA bc = 703.43 x 587.12 = 412997.82
DA cd = 2099.10 x (-327.41) = -687266.33
DA de = 4104.20 x (-1002.76) = -3112767.59
DA ef = 2205.90 x (-122.67) = -270597.75
DA fa = 544.64 x 375.01 = 204245.45

∑DA = -3430192.54

THEREFORE:
2 x AREA = -3430192.54
AREA = -1715096.27 SQ M (negative sign is disregarded)

AREA BY DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE

Computation of DPD’s (Refer to rules for computing DPD)

DPD ab = 490.71
DPD bc = 490.71 + 490.71 + 587.12 = 1568.54
DPD cd = 15668.54 + 587.12 -327.41 = 1828.25
DPD de = 1828.25 – 327.41 -1002.76 = 498.08
82
 DPD ef = 498.08 -1002.72-122.67 = -627.35
DPD fa = -627.35 – 122.67 + 375.01 = -375.01
Computation of Double Areas (DOUBLE AREA = DPD X ADJ. LATITUDE)

DA ab = 490.71 x 47.27 = 2395.86

DA bc = 1568.54 x 608.89 = 955068.32
DA cd = 1828.25 x 786.78 = 1438430.54
DA de = 498.08 x 218.32 = 108740.83
DA ef = 627.35 x (-1116.62) = 700511.56
DA fa = 375.01 x (-544.64) = 204245.45
∑DA = 3430192.56

THEREFORE:
2 X AREA = 3430192.56
AREA = 1715096.28 SQ.M.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN DETERMINING AREAS

Some sources of error in area computations are:
1. Errors in the field data from which coordinates or maps are derived.
2. Making a poor selection of intervals and offsets to fit irregular boundaries.
3. Making errors in scaling from maps.
4. Shrinkage and expansion of maps.
5. Using coordinate squares that are too large and therefore make estimation
6. of areas of partial blocks difficult.
7. Making an incorrect setting of the planimeter scale bar.
8. Running off and on the edge of the map sheet with the planimeter drum.
9. Using different types of paper for the map and planimeter calibration sheet.

MISTAKES IN DETERMINING AREAS

83
In computing areas, common mistakes include:
1. Forgetting to divide by 2 in the coordinate and DMD methods.

2. Confusing signs of coordinates, departures, latitudes, and DMDs.

3. Forgetting to repeat the coordinates of the first point in the area by coordi-

nates method.

4. Failing to check an area computation by a different method.

5. Not drawing a sketch to scale or general proportion for a visual check.

6. Not verifying the planimeter scale constant by tracing a known area.

84
 ACTIVITY 10

COMPASS TRAVERSE (OPEN)

Introduction
This activity is about the use of the compass to perform open traverse.

COMPASS SURVEY is one of the most basic and widely practiced methods of
determining the relative location of points where a high degree of precision is not
required. To enable the student to better understand compass surveys, the following
commonly used terms are defined.
1. Traverse. A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive points whose
lengths and directions have been determined from field measurements.
2. Traversing. The process of measuring the lengths and directions of the lines of
a traverse for the purpose of locating the position of certain points.
3. Traverse Station. Any temporary or permanent point of reference over which
the instrument is set up. A peg or a hub driven flush with the ground and
identified by consecutive letters or numbers as the survey progresses usually
marks it.
4. Traverse Lines are lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and
directions are determined.

Open Compass Traverse. is an open compass traverse consists of a series of lines

of known lengths and magnetic bearings, which are continuous but do not return to the
starting point or close upon a point of known position. Such a traverse is usually run
for preliminary or exploratory purposes as in route surveys.

Objectives
 Learn how to use a compass to perform open traverse
 To be familiar with angles

Equipment/Instruments:
 Field Book
 Measuring tape
 Range Poles
 Calculator
 Compass

Required:
To perform open traverse

85
 To plot the activity

Procedures:

1. The instructor will give the route for open traverse. He will designate the
location for the benchmark.
2. Choose a starting point. Make sure there is a clear path toward the bench mark
3. From the starting point measure the distance by using you pace from a
reference point or a bench mark. Measure the angle with the use of a compass.
Record
4. From the starting point chose a TP, measure the angle and distance.
5. After changing stations, Always Check by taking the back reading of the point.
6. Complete the route given by the instructor and record the angles and distances.
7. Tabulate the data and compute the technical description of the survey.
8. For the technical description use bearing for angle and meters for distance.
9. Plot the survey using appropriate scale

ADJUSTMENT OF AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE

- In compass traverse there are likely to be discrepancies between the observed

forward and back bearings of lines. These may be due to errors of observations or
local attraction. Angular observations made for a particular traverse must be
thoroughly examined to determine the best method of eliminating the discrepancies
without having to make very large adjustments or alterations.
- When adjusting an open compass traverse there are two important steps to
perform:
1. Determine which among the traverse lines is free from local attraction, and
2. Perform the adjustment of successive lines by starting from either end of the
selected line
The unaffected line is referred to as the “best line” and it is assumed that there
is no local attraction anywhere on this line. Also, forward and back bearings taken at
either end of the line are accepted as correct.

86
 An important principle to remember is that at any station the angle between the
forward and back lines can be computed from the observed bearings taken from the
station regardless of whether or not the needle is affected.
If two or more non-adjoining lines appear to be free from local attraction, only
one of these lines is arbitrarily chosen as the best line and adjustment of succeeding
lines originates from it.
When adjoining lines are similarly unaffected, adjustment may be started at any
line free from local attraction.
However, if none of the lines in the traverse appears to be unaffected by local
attraction, the line with the least discrepancy between the forward and back bearings
is chosen and its forward bearing is assumed to be correct.

Definition of terms

LOCAL ATTRACTION.
- is any deviation of the magnetic needle of a compass from its normal pointing
towards magnetic north.

MAGNETIC DIP.
- is a characteristic phenomenon of the compass needle to be attracted
downward from the horizontal plane due to the earth’s magnetic lines of force.

Sample tabulation

Point Forward bearing Back bearing No. of pace

Technical Description

LINE BEARING DISTANCE

87
PERSONAL ACTIVITY SHEET

TITLE: OPEN TRAVERSE

DATE: _____________
TIME:
STARTED: _____________
FINISHED: _____________
WEATHER CONDITION: ______________
LOCATION OF ACTIVITY: ______________
EQUIPMENT/ INSTRUMENT USED:
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
GROUP NAME: _________________
DESIGNATION OF MEMBERS
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________

TABULATION OF DATA:

LINE BEARING DISTANCE

SKETCHES

88
EXPLANATORY NOTES

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

COMPUTATIONS

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

RECOMMENDATION/CONCLUSIONS
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
89
DOCUMENTATION:

90
 ACTIVITY 11

CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE

Introduction
This activity is about the use of the compass to perform closed traverse.

Closed Compass Traverse. A closed compass traverse consists of a series of lines

of known lengths and magnetic bearings which forms a closed loop, or begin and end
at points whose positions have been fixed by other surveys of higher precision.

Objectives
 Learn how to use a compass to perform closed traverse
 To be familiar with angles

Equipment/Instruments:
 Field Book
 Measuring tape
 Range Poles
 Calculator
 Compass

Required:
To plot the activity

Procedures:

1. Assume the location of a benchmark on the field.

2. Perform a closed traverse with 5 points. Points 1-4 should not be less than 15
m but not more than 20m. Compute the equivalent pace distance by using
your pace factor. For point 5 just measure it.
3. Choose a starting point or point 1. Make sure there is a clear path toward the
bench mark

91
 4. From the starting point measure the distance by using you pace from a
reference point or a bench mark. Measure the angle with the use of a compass.
Record and label it as Tie Line.
5. From the point 1 sight point 2, measure the angle and distance. Distance
should be measured by pace, then measured by tape.
6. After changing stations, Always Check by taking the back reading of the point.
7. Repeat procedure 5 to 6 until you complete the close traverse and record the
angles and distances.
8. Tabulate the data and compute the technical description of the survey.
Compute for misclosure and apply adjustments. Compute the area by DMD
method.
9. For the technical description use bearing for angle and meters for distance.
10. Plot the survey using appropriate scale

Sample tabulation

Point Forward bearing Back bearing No. of pace

Technical Description

LINE BEARING DISTANCE

92
PERSONAL ACTIVITY SHEET

TITLE: CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE

DATE: _____________
TIME:
STARTED: _____________
FINISHED: _____________
WEATHER CONDITION: ______________
LOCATION OF ACTIVITY: ______________
EQUIPMENT/ INSTRUMENT USED:
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
GROUP NAME: _________________
DESIGNATION OF MEMBERS
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________

TABULATION OF DATA:

LINE BEARING DISTANCE

1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-1
Tie Line

SKETCHES

93
EXPLANATORY NOTES

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

COMPUTATIONS

(Use separate sheet for lot

computation)________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

RECOMMENDATION/CONCLUSIONS
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

94
DOCUMENTATION:

95
 ACTIVITY 12

LAY OUT OF A BUILDING

This is the final activity. This will include all skills and techniques used during
the semester.

Objective
 To layout a building from a plan

Equipment/Instruments:
 Field Book
 Calculator
 Transfer Certificate of Title
 Theodolite, automatic level or total station.
 Compass
 Plumb bob
 Measuring Tape or EDM
 Range Poles
 Floor Plan
 Site development plan
 Stakes
 Markers/Flag

Required:
1. Lot Plan
2. Floor Plan
3. Site Development Plan

Procedures:

Making a Plan
1. The group will find a TCT and plot it
2. Make a floor plan for a single-storey residential building that is based from the
TCT.
3. Draw The Site Development Plan.

Layout of Building

1. From the Plan. Relocate the boundaries of the lot. Assume the location for 1 of
the corners. You may use any available instrument. Same as the activity for
closed traverse
2. Mark the corners
96
3. Lay out the building starting from the corners. Then also the details of the
building.
4. Tip. Once you get 1 point of the building. Place the instrument directly to the
point. Orient the instrument to 00 then sight a point and 900 to get the other
corner.

97
PERSONAL ACTIVITY SHEET

TITLE: LAY OUT OF A BUILDING

DATE: _____________
TIME:
STARTED: _____________
FINISHED: _____________
WEATHER CONDITION: ______________
LOCATION OF ACTIVITY: ______________
EQUIPMENT/ INSTRUMENT USED:
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
GROUP NAME: _________________
DESIGNATION OF MEMBERS
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
________________________ - ________________________
TABULATION OF DATA:

SKETCHES

98
EXPLANATORY NOTES

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

COMPUTATIONS

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

RECOMMENDATION/CONCLUSIONS
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

99
DOCUMENTATION:

100
 ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
(Optional)

Activity no. ___

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLE BY

REPETITION METHOD

OBJECTIVE:

To measure a horizontal angle by repetition method.

THEORY: In this method, the angle is added several times mechanically and the value
of the angle obtained by dividing the accumulated reading by the number of
repetitions.

EQUIPMENTS USED:

 Transit Theodolite
 Tripod and
 Ranging rods

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the instrument over ‘O’ and level it accurately.

2. With the help of upper clamp and tangent screw, set 0º reading on vernier ‘A’.
Note the reading of vernier ‘B’.
101
3. Release the upper clamp and direct the telescope approximately towards the
point ‘P’.
4. Tighten the lower clamp and bisect point ‘P’ accurately by lower tangent screw.
5. Release the upper clamp and turn the instrument clock-wise towards Q. Clamp
the upper clamp and bisect ‘Q’ accurately with the upper tangent screw. Note
the readings of verniers ‘A’ and ‘B’ to get the values of the angle POQ.
6. Release the lower clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to sight P again.
Bisect P by using the lower tangent screw.
7. Release the upper clamp, turn the telescope clockwise and sight Q. Bisect Q by
using the upper tangent screw.
8. Repeat the process until the angle measured (required number of times is 3).
The average angle with face left will be equal to final reading divided by three.
9. Change face and make three more repetitions as described above. Find the
average angle with face right, by dividing the final reading by three.
10. The average horizontal angle is then obtained by taking the average of the two
angles with face left and face right.

102
Activity

DETERMINING AN HEIGHT OF OBJECT BY MEASURING

VERTICAL ANGLE

OBJECTIVE:

Determining a height of object by measuring vertical angle with the base line
inaccessible or not on same level.

EQUIPMENTS:

 Theodolite

 Leveling Stop

 Tape or Chain

 Pegs

 Plumb bob

PROCEDURES:

1. Setup the instrument at station P.

2. Perform all temporary adjustments.

3. Bring the line of collimation horizontal

4. Enter the initial readings in the tabular form.

5. Swing the telescope and take staff reading over the given B.M.

6. Swing the telescope towards the object.

7. Release the vertical clamp screw, sight the top of the object Q1, and clamp the
vertical clamp screw.

8. Read C and D verniers and enter the readings.

9. Release the vertical clamp screw, sight the bottom of the object Q, and clamp
the screw.

103
 10. Read vernier readings and enter in the tabular form.

11. Measure the Horizontal distance between the instrument station and the object.

12. The above procedure will be repeated with the face right observation.

13. The average of the two observations by transiting the telescope taken with
different faces will be vertical angle.

14. Repeat the procedures at station R.

15. Calculate the height using the formula given on the figure.

Case 1 When P is Lover than R

104
CASE 2: When P is Higher than R

SAMPLE TABULATION

1 2 b S1 H1 D

105
NOTES

106
NOTES

107
 WORKS CITED
Bannister, A. R. (2000). Surveying Seventh Edition. Singapore: Pearson Education
Asia Pte Ltd.

Besavilla, V. (1996). Theory and Practice in Surveying. Manila: Besavilla Publishing.

DENR. (2012). DAO SURVEYING MANUAL. LMS.

Ghilani., W. (2012). Elementary Surveying- An Introduction to Geomatics-13th ed.

Prentice Hall.

Integrated Publishing, Inc. (n.d.). Engineers transit. Retrieved 2013, from

http://www.tpub.com/engbas/11-11.htm

Kavanagh, B. F. (2010,). Surveying with construction applications.—7th ed. Prentice

Hall.

La Putt, J. (2008). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). . Mandaluyong City:: National

Bookstore. ISBN 971-08-5581-6. Originally published by Baguio Research and
Publishing Center, Baguio City, Philippines in 1981.

Linklater, A. (2003). Measuring America. Penguin.

Mahun, J. (n.d.). jerry mahun web site. Retrieved from

http://jerrymahun.com/library/Distance/a.htm#2

Miroslav Stibor, P. (2013). Measuring angles and directions. Retrieved from Measuring
angles and directions: http://surveying.structural-analyser.com/chapter06/

Van Sickle, J. (1993). 1001 Solved Fundamentals Problems. Belmont CA:

Professional Publications Inc. / Merriam Webster.

Wikipedia.org. (n.d.). Retrieved 2015, from Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunton_compass

Wikipedia.org. (n.d.). Tape Correction. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_correction_(surveying)

Zieske, K. (2004). Surveying Made Easy. Leica Geosystems.

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ANNEXES

109
110