TRANSPORT IN HUMANS

GRADE 11 BIOLOGY

The transport system in humans refers to the circulatory or cardiovascular system , which is
responsible for the transportation of essential substances, such as oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
and waste products, throughout the body. The main structures involved in this process are the
heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Humans need a circulatory system because it plays a vital role in maintaining overall health and
enabling the proper functioning of the body. Here are the reasons why humans need a circulatory
system.
➔ Transport of Oxygen and Nutrients: The circulatory system transports oxygen and
nutrients to all cells in the body. Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration, which
produces energy for various bodily functions. Nutrients obtained from digested food are
also carried by the circulatory system to cells, providing them with the necessary building
blocks for growth, repair, and maintenance.
➔ Removal of Waste Products: The circulatory system helps remove waste products, such
as carbon dioxide and metabolic byproducts, from cells. Oxygen-depleted blood returns
to the heart, which pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide.
The circulatory system ensures the efficient elimination of waste materials, maintaining a
healthy internal environment.
➔ Regulation of Body Temperature: The circulatory system plays a role in regulating
body temperature. Blood carries heat from active areas of the body, such as muscles, to
other parts of the body, helping to distribute heat evenly. Additionally, blood vessels near
the skin can dilate or constrict to release or conserve heat, respectively, contributing to
temperature regulation.
➔ Immune Response: The circulatory system is involved in the immune response, which
helps protect the body against infections and diseases. White blood cells, an essential
component of the circulatory system, are responsible for identifying and eliminating
pathogens and foreign substances. They travel through the bloodstream to reach infected
or damaged areas and initiate the immune response.
 ➔ Hormone Transport: Hormones, chemical messengers that regulate various bodily
processes, are transported through the circulatory system. Endocrine glands release
hormones into the bloodstream, allowing them to reach target cells or organs and elicit
specific physiological responses. Hormones play a crucial role in regulating metabolism,
growth, reproduction, and other essential functions.
➔ Maintenance of Fluid Balance: The circulatory system helps maintain fluid balance in
the body. Blood vessels, particularly capillaries, facilitate the exchange of fluid between
the bloodstream and surrounding tissues. This exchange ensures that the body maintains
the appropriate levels of fluids, electrolytes, and other essential substances necessary for
proper bodily function.
➔ Blood Clotting: The circulatory system includes mechanisms for blood clotting or
coagulation. When blood vessels are damaged, a series of reactions occur to form a blood
clot, which prevents excessive bleeding. This clotting process is crucial in preventing
excessive blood loss and promoting wound healing.

THE HEART
The heart is a muscular vital organ located in the chest cavity. It acts as a pump, continuously
contracting and relaxing to propel blood throughout the body. The human heart consists of four
chambers: two - atria (left and right) and two -ventricles (left and right). The right side of the
heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation,
while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.
The atria receive blood returning to the heart, while the ventricles pump blood out of the heart.
Atria: The atria are the upper chambers of the heart. The right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava. The left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins.
Ventricles: The ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation through the
pulmonary artery. The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it
to the rest of the body through the aorta, the largest artery.
Valves: The heart has valves that ensure one-way blood flow. The atrioventricular (AV) valves,
including the tricuspid valve on the right side and the mitral (bicuspid) valve on the left side,
separate the atria from the ventricles. The semilunar valves, including the pulmonary valve and
aortic valve, prevent backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles.
Blood Circulation: The heart performs a double circulation to transport blood. The pulmonary
circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation and
returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium. The systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood
from the left ventricle to the rest of the body's organs and tissues and returns deoxygenated blood
to the right atrium.

Heart Contractions: The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically to pump blood. The
contraction phase is called systole, and the relaxation phase is called diastole. The coordinated
contractions of the atria and ventricles ensure efficient blood circulation.
 THE BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels are a network of tubes that carry blood to and from various parts of the body.
There are three main types of blood vessels.
Arteries: Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the organs and tissues of the
body. They have thick, muscular walls that allow them to withstand the high pressure generated
by the heart's pumping action.The main functions of arteries are:
● Distribution: Arteries branch out into smaller arterioles, which further divide into
capillaries, facilitating the distribution of oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to the body's
cells.
● Pressure Regulation: Arteries have thick, muscular walls that enable them to withstand
the high-pressure surges generated by the heart's contractions. The elastic properties of
arterial walls also help maintain a continuous flow of blood.

Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the organs and tissues back to the heart. Unlike
arteries, veins have thinner walls and contain valves that prevent the backward flow of
blood.They function as a return system to ensure the continuous flow of blood. Some key
functions of veins are:
● Collection: Veins collect deoxygenated blood from the capillaries and merge into larger
vessels as they move toward the heart.
● Capacitance: Veins have thinner walls compared to arteries and contain valves that
prevent the backward flow of blood. This design allows veins to act as a blood reservoir,
accommodating large volumes of blood and ensuring its return to the heart.
Capillaries: Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled vessels that connect arteries and veins. They are the
site of exchange between the blood and surrounding tissues, allowing the delivery of oxygen and
nutrients and the removal of waste products. Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest blood
vessels in the body. They connect arteries and veins and play a crucial role in the exchange of
substances between the blood and surrounding tissues. The functions of capillaries include:
● Exchange: Capillaries have thin walls, allowing for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients,
and hormones from the blood into the surrounding tissues. Simultaneously, waste
products, such as carbon dioxide and metabolic byproducts, diffuse from the tissues into
the capillaries for removal.

THE BLOOD
Blood is a specialized fluid that circulates through the circulatory system. It is composed of
different components:
Red Blood Cells (RBCs): RBCs, also known as erythrocytes, are responsible for carrying
oxygen to the body's tissues. They contain a protein called hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen
in the lungs and releases it in the tissues.
Red blood cells are disc-shaped and biconcave, resembling a donut with a thinner center. This
unique shape provides a larger surface area for gas exchange.They are small cells, typically
measuring about 7-8 micrometers in diameter.Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus, allowing for
more space to carry oxygen-carrying molecules.Red blood cells contain a protein called
haemoglobin, which gives them their characteristic red color. Haemoglobin is responsible for
binding and carrying oxygen.
Function:: The primary function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
body's tissues. In the lungs, oxygen binds to haemoglobin within red blood cells, forming
oxyhemoglobin. As blood circulates through the body, oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen, allowing
it to diffuse into the tissues that need it for cellular respiration.
The biconcave shape of red blood cells allows them to be flexible and easily deformable. This
enables them to squeeze through narrow capillaries and travel smoothly through the circulatory
system. Red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 120 days. After this period, they are
removed from circulation and broken down by the spleen and liver, with their components
recycled for future use.

White Blood Cells (WBCs): WBCs, also known as leukocytes, play a crucial role in the
immune system by defending the body against infections and foreign substances.
White blood cells are larger than red blood cells and typically have a diameter ranging from 10
to 20 micrometers. They have a spherical or irregular shape. Unlike red blood cells, white blood
cells contain a nucleus. The cytoplasm of white blood cells contains various organelles necessary
for their functions, such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
White blood cells are key players in the body's immune response. They recognize and eliminate
pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, through various mechanisms like phagocytosis,
release of toxic substances, and antibody production. White blood cells are involved in the
inflammatory response, which is the body's defense mechanism against injury and infection.
They migrate to the site of inflammation to remove pathogens and promote healing.
Certain white blood cells, such as lymphocytes, play a role in surveillance and recognition of
foreign substances. They can identify and remember specific pathogens, enabling a faster and
more targeted immune response upon subsequent exposure.
Phagocytes and lymphocytes are two types of white blood cells that play important roles in the
immune response.
Phagocytes are a group of white blood cells that specialize in engulfing and destroying foreign
substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. They are crucial for innate immunity,
which provides immediate and general defense against pathogens.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the adaptive immune
response. They are responsible for recognizing specific antigens (foreign substances) and
mounting targeted immune responses.
Phagocytes act as the first line of defense by engulfing and destroying pathogens, while
lymphocytes play a more targeted and specific role in recognizing and eliminating antigens. This
coordinated response helps protect the body against infections and maintain immune
homeostasis.

Platelets: Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, disc-shaped cell fragments that play
a crucial role in blood clotting and the prevention of excessive bleeding.Platelets are the smallest
formed elements of blood, typically measuring about 2-4 micrometers in diameter. They are
irregularly shaped, disc-like structures with no nucleus.
Platelets are filled with granules containing various substances, including clotting factors,
enzymes, and molecules involved in blood clot formation and wound healing. These granules
play a crucial role in the platelets' functions.
Blood Clotting: Platelets are primarily responsible for initiating and forming blood clots, a
process known as haemostasis. When a blood vessel is injured, platelets adhere to the site of
injury and aggregate to form a temporary plug, sealing the damaged blood vessel. This initial
platelet plug acts as a scaffold for the formation of a blood clot.
Clot Retraction and Stabilization: Platelets have contractile proteins that enable them to
contract, causing the blood clot to shrink and consolidate. This process, known as clot retraction,
helps to stabilize the clot and promote wound healing.
Release of Factors: Platelets contain granules that store and release various factors involved in
blood clotting, such as clotting factors, growth factors, and inflammatory molecules. These
factors help to amplify the clotting process, recruit other cells to the site of injury, and initiate
tissue repair.
Promotion of Wound Healing: Platelets release growth factors, such as platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF), which stimulate the proliferation of cells involved in tissue repair, including
fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. This promotes wound healing and tissue regeneration.
Immune Response: Platelets can interact with immune cells and participate in immune
responses. They can release immune-modulating molecules and interact with pathogens directly,
contributing to the body's defense against infections.

Plasma: Plasma is the liquid component of blood and serves as a medium for transporting
substances such as nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
Blood plasma is the pale yellow, liquid component of blood that makes up about 55% of total
blood volume. It is a clear, straw-colored fluid that is mostly composed of water (about 90-92%),
but it also contains a variety of essential substances, including electrolytes, hormones, waste
products, and proteins. The key functions of blood plasma in the body include:
Transport of substances: Plasma serves as the medium for transporting various substances
throughout the body. It carries nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and waste products like urea
and creatinine to and from cells. This transport function is crucial for maintaining the body's
overall functioning.
Regulation of osmotic pressure: Plasma proteins, particularly albumin, help maintain the
osmotic pressure of blood. This pressure gradient is essential for preventing excessive fluid loss
from the blood vessels and into the surrounding tissues. It helps keep the blood volume and
pressure within a narrow range, ensuring adequate tissue perfusion.
Immune defense: Plasma contains antibodies, complement proteins, and other immune factors
that play a crucial role in defending the body against infections. These proteins help recognize
and neutralize pathogens, making them a vital part of the immune system.
Clotting and wound healing: Plasma also contains proteins like fibrinogen and other clotting
factors. When a blood vessel is injured, these proteins initiate the clotting cascade, leading to the
formation of blood clots. This is essential for stopping bleeding and promoting wound healing.
pH and electrolyte balance: Plasma helps maintain the body's pH balance (acid-base
equilibrium) and the proper concentration of electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium, calcium,
and chloride) to ensure the body's normal physiological functions.
Nutrient and waste exchange: Plasma facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste products
between blood vessels and surrounding tissues. This exchange ensures that cells receive the
necessary nutrients and oxygen while removing metabolic waste.
Temperature regulation: Blood plasma helps distribute heat throughout the body, contributing
to temperature regulation. The circulatory system carries warm blood from the body's core to the
extremities and returns cooler blood to maintain a relatively constant body temperature.
THE BLOOD CLOTTING MECHANISM
The blood clotting process, also known as haemostasis, plays a crucial role in healing wounds
and preventing excessive bleeding. It involves a series of steps that work together to form a
blood clot at the site of injury. The process entails the following steps:

Vasoconstriction: When a blood vessel is injured, the immediate response is vasoconstriction,

where the blood vessel narrows to reduce blood flow to the damaged area. This constriction
helps minimize blood loss.

Platelet activation: Platelets are small cell fragments in the blood that play a key role in clot
formation. When blood vessels are damaged, platelets become activated and adhere to the site of
injury. They release chemical signals that attract more platelets to the area.

Formation of the platelet plug: The aggregated platelets form a temporary "plug" at the site of
the injury. This plug helps stop the bleeding and seals the wound temporarily.

Coagulation cascade: The coagulation cascade is a series of complex chemical reactions

involving various blood clotting factors. These factors work together to convert a soluble protein
in the blood called fibrinogen into insoluble strands of fibrin. Fibrin forms a mesh-like structure
that reinforces the platelet plug, creating a more stable blood clot.

Blood clot formation: As more fibrin strands accumulate, they trap red blood cells and
additional platelets, forming a solid blood clot. This clot acts as a barrier to prevent further blood
loss.
Clot retraction and repair: Over time, the clot retracts, pulling the edges of the wound closer
together. This process helps in wound healing and tissue repair.

Fibrinolysis: After the wound has healed, the body initiates the process of fibrinolysis, which
breaks down the fibrin strands in the blood clot. This prevents the clot from becoming permanent
and allows normal blood flow to resume.

PHAGOCYTOSIS & NATURAL IMMUNITY

Phagocytosis is a process by which certain cells in the body, called phagocytes, engulf and ingest
foreign particles, such as bacteria, dead cells, and other debris. It is an essential mechanism of
the immune system and plays a critical role in defending the body against invading pathogens.
The process of phagocytosis involves several steps. First, phagocytes recognize and bind to the
foreign particle or pathogen through specialized receptors on their cell surface. This recognition
can be facilitated by various molecules, including antibodies and complement proteins that coat
the surface of the target.
Once bound, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia, which are temporary projections of the cell
membrane that surround the target particle, forming a phagosome. The phagosome is then
internalized into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte, effectively enclosing the target within a
membrane-bound compartment.
Next, the phagosome undergoes maturation, fusing with lysosomes, which are cellular organelles
containing digestive enzymes. This fusion forms a phagolysosome, creating an acidic and
enzymatic environment within the compartment. The enzymes within the phagolysosome break
down the engulfed particle into smaller fragments, rendering them harmless.
Finally, the phagocyte eliminates the remnants of the digested particle by either exocytosis, in
which the indigestible material is expelled from the cell, or by presenting fragments of the
digested particle on its cell surface to activate other components of the immune system, such as
T cells.
Phagocytosis is primarily performed by specialized phagocytes, including macrophages,
neutrophils, and dendritic cells. These cells are present in various tissues throughout the body
and are particularly abundant in immune organs like the spleen and lymph nodes. Each type of
phagocyte has specific functions and may be involved in different stages of the immune
response.

NATURAL IMMUNITY
Natural immunity, also known as innate immunity, refers to the body's first line of defense
against pathogens and foreign substances. It is a component of the immune system that provides
immediate and general protection, without prior exposure or specific recognition of the pathogen.
In the context of blood, natural immunity involves various cellular and soluble factors that help
combat infections. Here are a few key components of natural immunity related to the blood:
Phagocytes: Cells such as neutrophils and macrophages in the blood act as phagocytes, as
discussed earlier. They can engulf and destroy pathogens through phagocytosis, helping to
eliminate infections.
Natural Killer (NK) Cells: NK cells are a type of lymphocyte that circulate in the blood. They
are responsible for recognizing and killing infected cells, as well as cancer cells, without prior
sensitization. NK cells play an important role in the early defense against viral infections.
Complement System: The complement system is a group of proteins present in the blood that can
be activated in response to pathogens. It helps to enhance the process of phagocytosis, promotes
inflammation, and directly kills certain types of pathogens.

Cytokines: Cytokines are small signaling molecules released by immune cells, including those
in the blood. They regulate the immune response, coordinating the activities of different immune
cells and facilitating communication between them.
Acute Phase Proteins: During an infection or inflammation, the liver produces acute phase
proteins, such as C-reactive protein (CRP). These proteins can bind to pathogens and enhance
their recognition and elimination by phagocytes.

IMMUNIZATION
Immunization, also known as vaccination, is a process of stimulating the immune system to
recognize and protect against specific infectious diseases. It involves the administration of
vaccines, which are preparations containing either inactivated or weakened forms of pathogens,
their components, or molecules that mimic the pathogens.
The purpose of immunization is to induce an immune response in the body, leading to the
production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and respond rapidly to the specific
pathogen if encountered in the future. This immune response provides protection against the
disease or reduces its severity, preventing complications, hospitalizations, and, in some cases,
mortality.
Immunization is a highly effective public health intervention and has played a significant role in
controlling and eradicating many infectious diseases worldwide. It has led to the elimination of
diseases such as smallpox and has greatly reduced the incidence of diseases like polio, measles,
and diphtheria.

Immunization can be administered through different routes, including injection (intramuscular,

subcutaneous), oral, or nasal. The specific immunization schedule and recommendations vary
depending on factors such as age, geographic location, and individual risk factors. National and
international health authorities provide guidelines and immunization schedules to ensure that
individuals receive the appropriate vaccines at the recommended times.
Immunization not only protects individuals who receive the vaccines but also contributes to
community protection through herd immunity. When a significant proportion of the population is
vaccinated, the spread of the pathogen is reduced, protecting those who are not vaccinated or
unable to receive vaccines due to medical reasons.

ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Immunization provides humans with a form of immunity known as active immunity. Active
immunity is the result of the body's immune system responding to an antigen, which is typically
a weakened or inactivated form of a pathogen or a specific component of the pathogen, such as a
protein. When a person is immunized, their immune system recognizes the antigen in the vaccine
as foreign and launches an immune response against it.
This immune response involves the production of antibodies, which are proteins that can
recognize and neutralize the pathogen or its toxins. The immune system also generates memory
cells that "remember" the specific antigen, allowing for a rapid and robust response if the person
is exposed to the pathogen in the future.
The active immunity acquired through immunization provides long-lasting protection against the
targeted pathogen. If the person comes into contact with the actual pathogen later on, their
immune system can quickly recognize and mount a strong defense, preventing or significantly
reducing the severity of the infection.
It is important to note that while immunization provides protection against specific pathogens, it
may not confer immunity against all diseases. Each vaccine targets a specific pathogen or group
of pathogens, so multiple vaccinations may be necessary to protect against different diseases.
Additionally, the duration of immunity can vary depending on the vaccine and the individual's
immune response. Some vaccines require booster shots to maintain long-term immunity.
Artificial immunity, also known as acquired immunity or adaptive immunity, is a type of
immunity that is intentionally induced or manipulated by medical intervention. It is a form of
immunity that is not naturally acquired through infection or exposure to pathogens.
Artificial immunity can be achieved through two main approaches: active immunization and
passive immunization.
Active Immunization: Active immunization involves administering vaccines that contain
harmless forms of pathogens or specific components of pathogens, such as proteins or sugars.
These vaccines stimulate the person's immune system to mount a response, leading to the
production of antibodies and memory cells. This process results in long-lasting protection against
the targeted pathogen. Common examples of active immunization include vaccinations against
diseases like measles, polio, influenza, and hepatitis.

Passive Immunization: Passive immunization involves the direct transfer of preformed

antibodies into an individual's body, rather than stimulating the person's immune system to
produce them. This approach provides immediate, temporary immunity. Passive immunity can
be acquired naturally, such as when a baby receives antibodies from its mother through the
placenta or breast milk. It can also be artificially induced by administering antibodies derived
from human or animal sources. Passive immunization is often used in emergency situations or
for individuals with compromised immune systems who cannot mount an immune response. For
example, passive immunization with antibodies is used to treat certain viral infections, such as
rabies or hepatitis B, after exposure.
Artificial immunity is an important tool in preventing and controlling infectious diseases. It
allows individuals to develop protection against specific pathogens without the risk of severe
illness associated with natural infection.
 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Transport in plants refers to the movement of water, nutrients, and other substances throughout
the plant's tissues. It is a crucial process that enables the distribution of essential resources to
different parts of the plant, including the roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive structures.
There are two main types of transport in plants:
● Water Transport: Plants have specialized tissues called xylem and phloem that are
responsible for water transport. Xylem tissue carries water and dissolved minerals
upward from the roots to the rest of the plant. This process, known as "transpiration,"
involves the evaporation of water from the leaves, creating a negative pressure that pulls
water up through the xylem. The cohesion-tension theory explains this process.
The cohesion-tension theory, also known as the cohesion-adhesion theory or transpiration pull
theory, explains how water moves through the xylem tissue in plants from the roots to the leaves.
It describes the mechanism by which water is pulled upward against gravity through the plant's
vascular system.The theory is based on several key principles, as outlined below:
➔ Cohesion: Water molecules have a strong attraction, or cohesion, to each other due to
hydrogen bonding. This cohesion allows water molecules to stick together and form a
continuous column within the xylem.
➔ Adhesion: Water molecules also have an attraction, or adhesion, to the walls of the
xylem vessels. This adhesion helps counterbalance the force of gravity and prevents the
water column from breaking.
➔ Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which water vapor escapes from the
stomata (tiny openings) in the leaves. As water molecules evaporate from the leaf
 surface, a negative pressure or tension is created within the xylem vessels. As water
evaporates from the stomata, it creates a slight tension or pull on the water column. The
cohesive forces between water molecules enable the transmission of this tension from the
leaves to the roots, resulting in a continuous flow of water from the roots to the leaves.
➔ Capillary Action: Capillary action, a result of cohesion and adhesion, allows water to
move upward through narrow spaces, such as the thin tubes in the xylem.
● Nutrient Transport: The phloem tissue is responsible for the transport of organic
nutrients, such as sugars, hormones, and amino acids, throughout the plant. This process
is called "translocation." Nutrients produced in the leaves during photosynthesis or
absorbed by the roots are transported through the phloem to other parts of the plant,
including growing regions, storage tissues, and developing fruits.
Transport in plants occurs through two main mechanisms:
❖ Passive Transport: In passive transport, substances move across plant cells along a
concentration gradient without the expenditure of energy. For example, water moves
passively through the plant's cells via osmosis, from an area of higher water potential to
an area of lower water potential.
❖ Active Transport: Active transport requires energy to move substances against their
concentration gradient. Plants use active transport to absorb minerals from the soil, which
are then transported to different plant parts. This process is facilitated by specialized
proteins and requires energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

The two main structures involved in transport in plants are xylem and phloem.
Xylem: Xylem is a complex tissue composed of several cell types that work together to transport
water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. It consists of four main cell types:
a. Tracheids: Tracheids are long, narrow cells with tapered ends. They are found in all vascular
plants and are the primary water-conducting cells in gymnosperms.
b. Vessel Elements: Vessel elements are wider, shorter, and less tapered than tracheids. They are
found in angiosperms (flowering plants) and form long, continuous tubes called vessels that
enhance water transport efficiency.
c. Parenchyma Cells: Parenchyma cells are living cells that surround the xylem vessels and
tracheids. They provide mechanical support and can store nutrients.
d. Fibers: Fibers are elongated cells that provide additional support to the xylem tissue.

2. Phloem: Phloem is another complex tissue responsible for transporting organic nutrients from
sources (sites of production or storage) to sinks (sites of utilization or storage) throughout the
plant.The phloem is responsible for the transport of sugars, nutrients, hormones, amino acids and
other organic molecules from the site of production (usually leaves) to various parts of the plant,
such as roots, stems, and developing fruits. Its structure is highly specialized to efficiently carry
out this transport function. Phloem consists of four main cell types:
a. Sieve Tube Elements: Sieve tube elements are specialized cells that form long, interconnected
tubes called sieve tubes. They lack a nucleus and other organelles, allowing for the efficient flow
of sap (the fluid in the phloem) through the tubes. The main conducting cells of the phloem are
called sieve tube elements (also known as sieve elements). They are elongated cells that form
long tubes, creating a continuous pathway for the movement of fluids. The end walls of sieve
tube elements contain sieve plates, which have numerous pores or sieve pores. These pores allow
for the movement of materials between adjacent sieve tube elements.
b. Companion Cells: Companion cells are closely associated with sieve tube elements and
provide metabolic support to maintain the function and vitality of the sieve tubes.Companion
cells are metabolically active cells that provide energy and support to the sieve tube elements.
They are connected to the sieve tube elements through numerous plasmodesmata, which are
channels that allow for the exchange of nutrients and other molecules. The companion cells help
maintain the metabolic functions of the sieve tube elements, enabling efficient long-distance
transport.
c. Parenchyma Cells: Similar to xylem, phloem also contains parenchyma cells that provide
support and storage. The phloem tissue also contains parenchyma cells, which are involved in
storage and provide mechanical support to the phloem. These cells can store starch, oils,
proteins, and other substances that can be transported when needed. The storage function allows
the plant to regulate the availability of nutrients and energy for transport.
d. Sclerenchyma Fibers: Sclerenchyma fibers are present in some phloem tissues and provide
mechanical support.In some plant species, phloem fibers are present. These are elongated cells
with thick cell walls that provide mechanical strength and support to the phloem tissue. They
help maintain the structural integrity of the phloem and prevent collapse or damage during
growth or external stresses.
e. Plasmodesmata: Plasmodesmata are microscopic channels that connect adjacent plant cells,
including sieve tube elements, companion cells, and parenchyma cells. They allow for direct
communication and transport of various molecules between cells. Plasmodesmata play a crucial
role in maintaining the symplastic continuity of the phloem tissue, enabling efficient movement
of solutes and signaling molecules.

In addition to xylem and phloem, there are other structures involved in plant transport:
Stomata: Stomata are small openings present on the surface of leaves, stems, and other plant
organs. They regulate the exchange of gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) and water
vapor between the plant and its environment. Stomata play a crucial role in transpiration, which
is essential for the movement of water through the xylem.
Root Hairs: Root hairs are tiny extensions of root epidermal cells that increase the surface area
of the roots for water and nutrient absorption from the soil. They facilitate the uptake of water
and minerals and their subsequent transport through the roots.
 EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ON TRANSPIRATION
External factors play a significant role in regulating transpiration, which is the process by which
plants lose water vapor through their leaves. Here are some of the key external factors that can
influence the process of transpiration in plants.

Light intensity: Transpiration is directly influenced by light intensity. When light levels are high,
stomata (tiny pores on the surface of leaves) open wider, allowing for increased transpiration.
This is because light stimulates photosynthesis, which leads to the opening of stomata for gas
exchange, including the release of water vapor.
Temperature: Higher temperatures generally result in increased transpiration rates. Warmer
temperatures cause water molecules to move more quickly, increasing their evaporation from the
leaf surface. Additionally, high temperatures can cause stomata to open wider, promoting greater
transpiration.
Humidity: Humidity refers to the amount of moisture present in the air. High humidity reduces
the transpiration rate because the air surrounding the leaf is already saturated with moisture,
creating a lower concentration gradient and limiting water loss from the plant. Conversely, low
humidity enhances transpiration as the concentration gradient favors water vapor movement
from the leaf to the drier air.
Wind speed: Increased air movement, such as from wind, enhances transpiration. Moving air
removes the layer of saturated air that accumulates near the leaf surface, promoting a steeper
concentration gradient and faster diffusion of water vapor from the leaf.
Atmospheric pressure: Changes in atmospheric pressure can affect transpiration. High-pressure
systems tend to promote lower transpiration rates, whereas low-pressure systems can increase
transpiration. However, the influence of atmospheric pressure on transpiration is relatively minor
compared to other factors.
Soil moisture: The availability of water in the soil is crucial for transpiration. When the soil is
dry, plants may regulate transpiration by closing their stomata to conserve water. Conversely,
when soil moisture is abundant, plants are more likely to have open stomata, leading to increased
transpiration.
Plant characteristics: Different plant species have varying adaptations that influence
transpiration rates. Features such as the size and shape of leaves, presence of a waxy cuticle,
density and distribution of stomata, and the presence of specialized structures like trichomes can
all affect transpiration levels.

ADAPTATIONS OF PLANTS FOR WATER CONSERVATION

Plants have evolved various adaptations to conserve water, especially in arid environments.
These adaptations help them minimize water loss through transpiration, while maximizing water
absorption and storage. Here are some common adaptations in plants to conserve water:

Leaf modifications: Plants in arid regions often have reduced leaf sizes or modified leaf
structures to minimize water loss. For example, some plants have small, needle-like leaves (e.g.,
cacti) or thick, waxy cuticles that reduce water evaporation from leaf surfaces.
Stomatal control: Stomata are tiny openings on the leaf surface through which water vapor
escapes during transpiration. Plants can regulate the opening and closing of stomata to control
water loss. In arid environments, plants often have stomata that close during the hottest parts of
the day to reduce water loss. Some plants, such as CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants,
open their stomata at night to take up carbon dioxide and store it for use during the day.
Succulence: Succulent plants, such as cacti and certain types of agave, have specialized tissues
that can store large amounts of water. These plants have fleshy stems or leaves that can store
water for extended periods of time, allowing them to survive in dry conditions.
Deep root systems: Plants in arid [excessively dry] regions often have deep root systems that
can access water sources deep in the soil. This enables them to tap into groundwater or reach
deeper layers where water is more available, reducing their dependence on surface water.
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM): CAM is a carbon fixation pathway that some plants
have developed to conserve water. These plants open their stomata at night to take in carbon
dioxide, which is converted into organic acids and stored. During the day, the stomata remain
closed, reducing water loss while still allowing photosynthesis to occur.
Hairy or silvery leaf surfaces: Some plants have leaves covered in fine hairs or have silvery
coatings, which can reflect sunlight and reduce heat absorption. This adaptation helps to lower
leaf temperature and minimize water loss through transpiration.
Reduced leaf surface area: Plants in arid environments may have reduced overall leaf surface
area, which limits the area available for water loss through transpiration.
Closures and shedding: In response to drought conditions, certain plants may shed leaves or
reduce their growth rate to conserve water. This helps to minimize water loss through
transpiration.
In the context of plant physiology and phloem transport, "source" and "sink" refer to the
locations within a plant where sugars and other organic molecules are either produced (source) or
utilized (sink).
Source: A source is a plant organ or tissue where photosynthesis or other processes produce an
excess of sugars and other organic molecules. Typically, mature leaves are the primary sources
of carbohydrates in plants. During photosynthesis, leaves produce sugars such as sucrose, which
are then transported through the phloem to other parts of the plant. Sources can also include
storage organs like roots or tubers when they release stored carbohydrates.
Sink: A sink is a plant organ or tissue that requires sugars and other organic molecules for
growth, development, or storage. Examples of sinks include growing roots, developing fruits,
expanding leaves, and storage organs like tubers or bulbs. These sinks have high metabolic
demands and consume or store the sugars and nutrients transported through the phloem. Sinks
can also be areas of active growth, where cells are dividing and differentiating, or sites of energy
storage, such as in seeds or storage roots.
The movement of sugars from source to sink is facilitated by the phloem. Sugars are loaded into
the sieve tube elements in the source region and transported through the phloem tissue to the sink
regions. At the sink, sugars are actively unloaded and utilized for growth, energy production, or
storage.
PRODUCTS & SITES OF STORAGE IN PLANTS & ANIMALS
Plants and animals store various products to meet their metabolic needs and survive under
different conditions. Some common examples of products stored in plants and animals along
with their sites of storage include:
Plants:
Starch: Plants store excess carbohydrates in the form of starch. Starch is primarily stored in
specialized storage organs, such as roots (e.g., sweet potatoes), tubers (e.g., potatoes), and seeds.
Sugars: Some plants store sugars in their fruits as a form of energy for seed dispersal. Fruits like
apples, grapes, and berries store sugars in their fleshy tissues.
Lipids: Plants store lipids, such as oils and fats, in various plant parts, including seeds, fruits
(e.g., avocado), and specialized storage tissues like the endosperm of grains.
Proteins: Some plants store proteins in seeds, particularly in the endosperm or cotyledons. These
proteins serve as a source of nutrients for germinating seeds.

Animals:
Glycogen: Animals store excess glucose in the form of glycogen, a highly branched
polysaccharide. Glycogen is primarily stored in the liver and muscles.
Lipids: Animals store lipids in specialized adipose tissue throughout the body. Adipose tissue,
commonly found under the skin and around organs, serves as the primary site for lipid storage.
Proteins: Animals store proteins in various tissues, including muscles, which can be broken
down and utilized during times of fasting or energy depletion.
Minerals: Animals store minerals such as calcium and phosphorus in bones and teeth. These
minerals provide structural support and serve as a reservoir for essential elements.

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD STORAGE IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Food storage plays a crucial role in the survival and functioning of living organisms. Some
common importance of this include the following:
★ Energy Reserve: Food storage allows organisms to store excess energy in the form of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. This stored energy can be utilized during periods of
low food availability or high energy demands. It serves as a backup energy source to
sustain metabolism, growth, and reproduction when fresh food or sufficient nutrients are
not readily available.
★ Survival during Unfavorable Conditions: Food storage enables organisms to survive
through unfavorable conditions such as drought, winter, or periods of low food
availability. By storing food reserves, organisms can sustain themselves until more
favorable conditions return, ensuring their survival and reducing the risk of starvation.
★ Reproduction and Offspring Development: Food storage is crucial for successful
reproduction and the development of offspring. In plants, stored nutrients in seeds
provide nourishment for the developing embryo until it can establish photosynthesis. In
animals, adequate food reserves are essential for supporting reproduction, fetal
development, and lactation.
★ Adaptation to Varying Environments: Food storage allows organisms to adapt to
varying environments and ecological niches. It provides flexibility in utilizing resources
efficiently and effectively. Organisms can accumulate and store food during periods of
abundance and utilize it during times of scarcity or when the availability of resources is
limited.
★ Migration and Long-Distance Movements: Food storage is particularly important for
migratory organisms that undergo long-distance movements. By accumulating and
storing energy-rich food reserves, such as fat in birds or marine mammals, these
 organisms can sustain themselves during the migration journey when food sources may
be scarce or unavailable.
★ Maintenance of Metabolic Processes: Food storage ensures the continuous supply of
nutrients required for essential metabolic processes. Stored carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins serve as substrates for energy production, biosynthesis of cellular components,
and maintenance of cellular functions.
Overall, food storage provides a strategic advantage for organisms, allowing them to
survive in challenging conditions, support growth and reproduction, and adapt to
dynamic environments. It helps ensure the availability of energy and nutrients for vital
physiological processes, contributing to the overall fitness and success of living
organisms.