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The Origin and Chemistry of

Life

CHAPTER 2

Water and Life

 Water makes up a
large portion of living
organisms.
 It has several unusual
properties that make
it essential for life.
 Hydrogen bonds
lie behind these
important properties.

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Water and Life

 High specific heat capacity – 1 calorie is required

to elevate temperature of 1 gram of water 1°C.
 Moderates environmental changes.
 High heat of vaporization – more than 500
calories are required to convert 1 g of liquid water to
water vapor.
 Cooling produced by evaporation of water is important for
expelling excess heat.

Water and Life

 Unique density
behavior – while
most liquids become
denser with decreasing
temperature, water’s
maximum density is at
4°C.
 Ice floats! Lakes don’t
freeze solid – some
liquid water is usually
left at the bottom.

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Water and Life

 Water has high
surface
tension.
 Because of the
hydrogen bonds
between water
molecules at the
water-air
interface, the
water molecules
cling together.
 Water has low
viscosity.

Water and Life

 Water acts as a
solvent – salts
dissolve more in
water than in any
other solvent.
 Result of the
dipolar nature of
water.

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Water and Life

 Hydrolysis occurs when compounds are split into

smaller pieces by the addition of a water molecule.
 R-R + H2O R-OH + H-R
 Condensation occurs when larger compounds are
synthesized from smaller compounds.
 R-OH + H-R R-R + H2O

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

 Acid: Substance that liberates hydrogen ions

(H+) in solution.
 Base: Substance that liberates hydroxyl ions
(OH-) in solution.
 The regulation of the concentrations of H+ and OH- is
critical in cellular processes.

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Acids, Bases, and Buffers

 pH – A measure of the concentration

of H+ in a solution.
 The pH scale runs from 0 - 14.
Represents the negative log of the H+
concentration of a solution.

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

Neutral solution with a pH of 7:

[H+] = [OH-]
Basic solution with a pH above 7:
[H+] < [OH-]
Acidic solution with a pH below 7:
[H+] > [OH-]

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Acids, Bases, and Buffers

 Buffer: Molecules that prevent dramatic changes

in the pH of fluids.
 Remove H+ and OH- in solution and transfers them to other
molecules.
 Example: Bicarbonate Ion (HCO3-).

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Chemistry of Life

 Recall the four major categories of biological

macromolecules:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids

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Carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon (C),

hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
 Usually found 1C:2H:1O.
 Usually grouped as H-C-OH.
 Function as structural elements and as a source of
chemical energy (ex. glucose).

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Carbohydrates

 Plants use water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)

along with solar energy to manufacture
carbohydrates in the process of photosynthesis.
 6CO2 +6H2O light C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Life depends on this reaction – it is the starting point for the
formation of food.

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Carbohydrates

 Three classes of carbohydrates:

 Monosaccharides – simple sugars

 Disaccharides – double sugars

 Polysaccharides – complex sugars

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Monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides
– Single carbon
chain 4-6 carbons.
 Glucose C6H12O6
 Can be straight chain
or a ring.

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Monosaccharides

 Some common monosaccharides:

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Disaccharides

 Disaccharides –
Two simple sugars
bonded together.
 Water released
 Sucrose = glucose
+ fructose
 Lactose =

glucose + galactose

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Polysaccharides

 Polysaccharides – Many simple sugars bonded

together in long chains.
 Starch is the common polymer in which sugar is usually
stored in plants.
 Glycogen is an important polymer for storing sugar in
animals.
 Found in liver and muscle cells – can be converted to glucose
when needed.
 Cellulose is the main structural carbohydrate in plants.

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Lipids

 Lipids are fatty substances.

 Nonpolar – insoluble in water

 Neutral fats

 Phospholipids

 Steroids

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Neutral Fats

 Neutral fats are the major fuel of animals.

 Triglycerides – glycerol and 3 fatty acids

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Neutral Fats

 Saturated fatty acids occur when every carbon

holds two hydrogen atoms.
 e.g vegetable oil
 Unsaturated fatty acids have two or more carbon
atoms joined by double bonds.
 Animal fat/oil

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Phospholipids

 Phospholipids are
important components
of cell membranes.
 They resemble
triglycerides, except
one fatty acid is
replaced by phosphoric
acid and an organic
base.
 The phosphate group
is charged (polar).

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Steroids

 Steroids are
complex alcohols
with fatlike
properties.
 Cholesterol

 Vitamin D
 Adrenocortical
hormones
 Sex hormones

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Proteins

 Proteins are large complex molecules composed of

amino acids.
 Amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
 Two amino acids joined – dipeptide
 Many amino acids – polypeptide chain

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Proteins

 There are 20 different types of amino acids.

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Protein Structure

 Proteins are complex

molecules organized
on many levels.
 Primary structure
– sequence of amino
acids.
 Secondary
structure – helix or
pleated sheet.
Stabilized with H-
bonds.

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Protein Structure
 Tertiary structure – 3-
dimensional structure of
folded chains. Eg. Disulfide
bond is a covalent bond
between sulfur atoms in two
cysteine amino acids that
are near each other.
 Quaternary structure
describes proteins with
more than one polypeptide
chain. Hemoglobin has four
subunits.

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Proteins

 Proteins serve many functions.

 Structural framework

 Enzymes that serve as catalysts

 All enzymes are proteins; not all proteins are enzymes.

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Nucleic Acids

 Nucleic acids are complex molecules with

particular sequences of nitrogenous bases that
encode genetic information.
 The only molecules that can replicate themselves – with help
from enzymes.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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Nucleic Acids

 The repeated units,

called nucleotides,
each contain a sugar,
a nitrogenous base,
and a phosphate
group.

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Chemical Evolution

 Life evolved from inanimate matter, with

increasingly complex associations between
molecules.
 Life originated ~3.5 billion years ago.

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Chemical Evolution

 Origin of Life
 Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis (1920s)
Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane
proposed an explanation for the chemical
evolution of life.

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Chemical Evolution

 Early atmosphere consisted of

simple compounds:
Water vapor
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Hydrogen Gas (H2)
Methane (CH4)
Ammonia (NH3)
No free Oxygen

Early atmosphere → Strongly Reducing

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Chemical Evolution

 Such conditions conducive to prebiotic

synthesis of life.
 Present atmosphere is strongly
oxidizing.
 Molecules necessary for life cannot be
synthesized outside of the cells.
 Not stable in the presence of O2

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Chemical Evolution

 Possible energy
sources required for
chemical reactions:
 Lightning
 UV Light
 Heat from volcanoes

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Chemical Evolution

 Simple inorganic molecules formed and began to

accumulate in the early oceans.

Over time:

Simple Complex
Organic Organic Cells
Molecules Molecules

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Chemical Evolution

 Prebiotic Synthesis of Small Organic

Molecules
 StanleyMiller and Harold Urey (1953)
simulated the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.

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Chemical Evolution

 Miller & Urey

reconstructed the O2 free
atmosphere they thought
existed on the early Earth in
the lab.
 Circulated a mixture of
H2
H2O
CH4
NH3

Energy source: electrical spark to

simulate lightning and UV
radiation.

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Chemical Evolution

 Results:
 In a week, 15% of the carbon in the mixture
was converted to organic compounds such
as:
Amino Acids
Urea
Fatty Acids
Simple Fatty Acids

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Chemical Evolution

 Conclusion: life may have evolved in “primordial

soup” of biological molecules formed in early Earth’s
oceans.

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Chemical Evolution

 Today it is believed that the early atmosphere was

only mildly reducing.
 Still……if NH3 and CH4 are omitted from the
mixture.
 Organic compounds continue to be produced (smaller amount
over a longer time period).

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Chemical Evolution

 More recent experiments:

 Subjecting a reducing mixture of gases to a violent energy
source produces:
Formaldehyde
Hydrogen Cyanide
Cyanoacetylene
 All highly reactive intermediate molecules

Significance?

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Chemical Evolution

 All react with water and NH3 or N2 to produce a

variety of organic compounds:

Amino Acids, Fatty Acids, Urea, Sugars,

Aldehydes, Purine and Pyrimidine Bases


Subunits For Complex Organic Compounds.

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Chemical Evolution

 Formation of Polymers
 The next stage of chemical evolution
required the joining of amino acids,
nitrogenous bases and sugars to form
complex organic molecules.
Does not occur easily in dilute solutions.
Water tends to drive reactions toward
decomposition by hydrolysis.

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Chemical Evolution

 Condensation reactions occur in aqueous

environments and require enzymes.
 How could condensation reactions occur
before enzymes were a reality?

Thermal Condensation

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Chemical Evolution

 Thermal Condensation -
Sidney Fox (1970s):
 Heated a mixture of dry
amino acids - forming
amino acid polymers.
 Mixed polymers with
water:

PROTEINOID
MICROSPHERES

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Chemical Evolution

 Properties of Proteinoid Microspheres:

 Less than 2 m in diameter.
 Comparable in size and shape to bacteria.
 Double-wall.
 Exhibit osmotic and selective diffusion properties.
 Grow by accretion.
 Increase in number by budding.

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Chemical Evolution

 Proteinoids might have been used to assemble the

first cells from macromolecular precursor molecules.
 Fox’s experiment indicates that:
 Compartmentalization (necessary for production of cellular
components) was possible.
 Organic polymers could be formed under conditions believed
to exist on the primitive earth.

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Chemical Evolution

 On the primitive earth:

 Surfaces of clay and iron molecules could
have provided sites for condensation of
organic molecules (polymer formation).
 Organic polymers might have condensed
in or near volcanoes.
Polymers mixedwith rain or dew.
Formed polypeptides or nucleotides.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Life on Earth: 4 billion years ago

 First cells would have been autonomous, membrane-
bound units capable of self-replication requiring:
Nucleic Acids
 This causes a biological paradox.
 How could nucleic acids appear without the enzymes to
synthesize them?
 How could enzymes exist without nucleic acids to direct their
synthesis?

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Origin of Living Systems

 RNA in some instances has catalytic activity

(ribozymes).
 First enzymes could have been RNA.
 Earliest self-replicating molecules could have been
RNA.
 Proteins are better catalysts and DNA is more stable
and would eventually be selectively favored.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Protocells containing protein enzymes and DNA

should have been selectively favored over those with
only RNA.
 Before this stage, only environmental conditions and
chemistry shaped biogenesis.
 After this stage, the system responds to natural
selection and evolves.
 The system now meets the requirements for being
the common ancestor of all living things.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Origin of metabolism in the earliest organisms:

 Probably primary heterotrophs.

 Derived nutrients from environment.

 Anaerobic bacterium-like.

 No need to synthesize own food.

 Chemical evolution had supplied an abundant supply of
nutrients in the early oceans.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Over time, nutrient supply began to dwindle as the

number of heterotrophs increased.
 At that point, a cell capable of converting inorganic
precursors to a required nutrient (autotrophs) would
have a selective advantage.
 The evolution of autotrophic organisms required
gaining enzymes to catalyze conversion of inorganic
molecules to more complex ones.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Appearance of Photosynthesis and Oxidative

Metabolism:
 Early photosynthetic organisms probably used hydrogen
sulfide or other hydrogen sources to reduce glucose.
 Later, autotrophs evolved that produced oxygen.
 Modern photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O6
 Ozone shield formed which restricted the amount of UV
radiation reaching Earth’s surface.
 Land and surface waters could now be occupied.

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Origin of Living Systems

 Atmosphere slowly changed from a reducing to a

highly oxidizing one.
 Oxidative (aerobic) metabolism (more efficient)
appeared using oxygen as the terminal acceptor and
completely oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide and
water.

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Precambrian Life

 Pre-Cambrian Period
covers time before
Cambrian began
nearly 600 million
years ago.

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Precambrian Life
 Most major animal
phyla appear within a
few million years at
the beginning of
Cambrian Period: the
“Cambrian explosion.”
 This likely represents
the absence of
fossilization rather
than abrupt
emergence.

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Precambrian Life

 Prokaryotes and the Age of

Cyanobacteria
 Primitive characteristics of
Prokaryotes:
A single DNA molecule, lacking
histones, not bound by nuclear
membranes.
 No mitochondria, plastids, Golgi
apparatus and endoplasmic
reticulum.
 Cyanobacteria peaked one
billion years ago
 Dominant for two-thirds of life’s
history.

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Precambrian Life
 Appearance of the
Eukaryotes
 Arose 1.5 billion years
ago
 Advanced Structures of
Eukaryotes:
 Membrane bound nucleus.
 More DNA, and eukaryotic
chromatin contains
histones.
 Membrane-bound
organelles in cytoplasm.

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Endosymbiotic Theory
 Lynn Margulis and
others propose that
eukaryotes resulted
from a symbiotic
relationship between
two or more bacteria:
 Mitochondria and
plastids contain their
own DNA.
 Nuclear, plastid and
mitochondrial
ribosomal RNAs show
distinct evolutionary
lineages.

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Endosymbiotic Theory

 Plastid and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA are

more closely related to bacterial DNA.
 Plastids are closest to cyanobacteria in
structure and function.
 A host cell that could incorporate plastids or
mitochondria with their enzymatic abilities
would be at a great advantage.

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Endosymbiotic Theory

 Energy producing bacteria came to reside

symbiotically inside larger cells.
 Eventually evolved into mitochondria.
 Photosynthetic bacteria came to reside symbiotically
in cells.
 Eventually evolved into chloroplasts.
 Mitochondria & chloroplasts have own DNA (similar
to bacterial DNA).
 Animation

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Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

 Many bacteria have

infoldings of the
outer membrane.
 These may have
pinched off to form
the nucleus and
endoplasmic
reticulum.

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Precambrian Life

 Heterotrophs that ate cyanobacteria provided

ecological space for other types of organisms.
 Food chains of producers, herbivores and carnivores
accompanied a burst of evolutionary activity that
may have been permitted by atmospheric changes.
 The merging of disparate organisms to produce
evolutionary novel forms is called symbiogenesis.

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Increasing Diversity – New Developments

 Photosynthesis – process where hydrogen atoms from

water react with carbon dioxide to make sugars and oxygen.
 6CO2 +6H2O light C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Autotrophs make their own food using energy from the sun, carbon
dioxide & water.
 Build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere allows evolution of other
organsisms.
 Heterotrophs obtain their energy from the environment.
 Sexual reproduction – allows for frequent genetic
recombination which generates variation.
 Multicellularity – fosters specialization of cells.

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