Early Tetrapods and Modern

Amphibians
Chapter 25
Early Tetrapods
l Tetrapods are
gnathostomes that have
limbs and feet.
l Tetrapods are a
monophyletic group.
l One of the most
significant events in
vertebrate history was
when the fins of some
lobe-fins evolved into the
limbs and feet of
tetrapods.
Early Tetrapods

l The movement from water to land

required more than the change from fins
to feet.
Early Tetrapods

l The terrestrial environment is different

than the aquatic environment.
l A higher oxygen content means oxygen can
diffuse more rapidly.
l Air is less dense – less buoyant.
l Stronger skeletal structure, sturdier limbs.
l Temperature fluctuates more.
l Terrestrial environment offers a whole new
array of habitats.
Early Tetrapods

l Tetrapods have many adaptations

including:
l Lungs for efficiently breathing air.
l Four limbs and feet with digits.

l Ears for detecting airborne sounds.

The Origin of Tetrapods

l The Devonian (beginning 400 mya) had

mild temperatures and alternating
droughts & floods.
l Freshwater sources unstable.
l Reduced oxygen content as pools &
streams dried up.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l Freshwater fishes alive at this time had a

kind of lung that developed as an
outgrowth of the pharynx.
l Efficiency of this air-filled cavity was
enhanced by improving the vascularity with
a capillary network.
l Oxygenated blood was then sent to the
heart & pumped to the rest of the body.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l This was the origin of the double

circulation that we find in all tetrapods.
l A systemic circulation serving the body.
l A pulmonary circulation supplying the lungs.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l Vertebrate limbs also arose during the

Devonian period.
l Fins of lobe-finned fishes have bony
elements that are homologous to tetrapod
limbs.
l Some Devonian lobe-finned fishes have
identifiable humerus, radius, & ulna, and
could sort of walk on the bottom of pools.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l In one lineage of lobe-fins, the fins became

progressively more limb-like while the rest of
the body retained adaptations for aquatic life.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l Extraordinary fossil discoveries over the

past 20 years have allowed
paleontologists to reconstruct the origin
of tetrapods.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l One theory about how early tetrapods

became adapted for life on land
suggests that they had to be able to
move from pool to pool to find water.
l Those with stronger fin/limbs would survive
& reproduce.
l Alfred Romer
The Origin of Tetrapods
l Acanthostega had well
developed limbs with digits,
but was fully aquatic in
other ways.
l The limbs were not
adequate for proper
walking on land.
l Only later did tetrapods
move onto land.
l We do not currently know
what caused this move.
The Origin of Tetrapods
l Lobe-finned fishes
are probably the
closest relatives of
tetrapods.
l Sister group
l Share several
characteristics with
early tetrapods like
Acanthostega &
Ichthyostega.
l Characteristics of
the skull, teeth, &
pectoral girdle.
The Origin of Tetrapods
l Ichthyostega had characteristics of a terrestrial
vertebrate:
l Jointed limbs
l Stronger vertebrae & associated muscles to support
the body in air.
l Muscles to elevate the head.
l Stronger shoulder & hip girdles.
l Protective rib cage.
l Modified ear structures for detecting airborne sounds.
l Modifications for detecting airborne odors.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l Ichthyostega also
retained some aquatic
characteristics:
l The tail has fin rays.
l Opercular (gill cover)
bones are present.
l Ichthyostega represents
an early offshoot of
tetrapod phylogeny, not
an immediate ancestor
of amphibians.
The Origin of Tetrapods

l The warm and

wet
Carboniferous
period followed
the Devonian.
l Tetrapods
radiated
quickly.
Class Amphibia

l Class Amphibia is represented by

about 5,000 species.
l Most amphibians have moist skin that
complements the lungs in gas exchange.
l Amphibians require moist environments.
l Amphibians are ectothermic with a low
metabolic rate.
Metamorphosis

l Amphibian means “two lives”, a reference to

the metamorphosis of an aquatic larva into a
terrestrial adult.
Terrestrial Amphibians
l Some amphibians
have adapted to a
more terrestrial life.
l Some caecilians
and salamanders
have direct
development.
l Some frogs have
unusual
adaptations for
caring for their
young.
Order Gymnophiona

l Order
Gymnophiona
includes caecilians,
which are legless
and resemble
worms.
l Burrowing &
aquatic forms.
Order Gymnophiona – Reproduction

l Fertilization is internal in this group.

l Larvae are aquatic.
l Some complete larval development inside
the egg.
l Some species are viviparous with the
young obtaining nourishment by eating
the wall of the oviduct.
Order Urodela

l Order Urodela
includes
salamanders,
which have tails.
Order Urodela – Metamorphosis

l The ancestral
condition in
salamanders is to
have aquatic larvae
and terrestrial adults
that live in moist
places.
l Some species are
fully aquatic, others
are fully terrestrial.
Order Urodela – Reproduction

l Fertilization is internal.
l The male deposits a spermatophore
(package of sperm) on the substrate, the
female then picks it up.
Order Urodela – Reproduction

l Aquatic larvae have external gills and a

finlike tail.

Blue-spotted Salamander larva (Photo from the

Massachussetts Vernal Pool Association )

Order Urodela – Reproduction

l Terrestrial species
have direct
development –
no larval form.
l Eggs are laid in
moist areas and
are sometimes
guarded by the
parents.
Order Urodela – Life Cycle
l Some American
newts have a complex
life cycle:
l Aquatic larvae
metamorphose into a
terrestrial red eft
stage that later
metamorphose again
into aquatic adults.
l Some skip the
terrestrial stage and
remain aquatic.
Order Urodela – Respiration

l Salamanders have a diverse array of

respiratory mechanisms.
l Respiration through the skin is important.
l At some point in the life cycle they may
have:
l External gills
l Lungs
l Both
l Neither
Order Urodela – Paedomorphosis

l Paedomorphosis is found in some salamanders.

l Larval characteristics are retained in mature adults.
l Some species do not metamorphose, retaining their
external gills and finlike tail and remaining aquatic while
mature.
l Mudpuppies
Order Urodela

l Some species only metamorphose under

certain conditions.
l Gilled forms called axolotls.
l Metamorphose when the pond evaporates.
Order Urodela

l Another example of paedomorphosis occurs in

the feet of salamanders in the genus
Bolitoglossa.
l Growth of the feet stops early leading to pad-
like feet that are useful for climbing.
Order Anura

l Order Anura includes frogs and toads, which

lack tails.
Order Anura – Habitats

l Adult anurans may

be found near water
throughout their lives,
or in more terrestrial
habitats.
l Some return to
water only to breed.
Order Anura – Habitats

l Some species are

fully terrestrial with
tadpoles living in
small water
accumulations in
plants, or in the
mouth or vocal sac
of the parent.
Order Anura – Defense

l Adult frogs show a variety of defense

mechanisms.
l Leaping away is a commonly seen defense.
l Most anurans can inflate their lungs so they
look too big to swallow.
l Some have poison glands.
l Dendrobatids (poison dart frogs)
l Toads

l Some will bite at a potential predator.

Order Anura – Coloration
l Skin color in amphibians
is produced by pigment
cells called
chromatophores.
l Xanthophores contain
yellow, orange or red
pigment.
l Iridophores contain a
silvery, light reflecting
pigment.
l Melanophores contain
black or brown melanin.
Order Anura – Coloration

l Green hue is an interaction of xanthophores

containing yellow pigment and underlying
iridophores.
l Many can adjust color to match with
background and camouflage themselves.
Order Anura – Respiration

l Amphibians can use three respiratory

surface for breathing:
l Skin – cutaneous breathing
l Mouth – buccal breathing

l Lungs

l Anurans are more reliant on lungs than

salamanders.
l Carbon dioxide still lost through skin.
Order Anura – Respiration

l Air must be forced

into lungs – positive
pressure breathing.
Order Anura – Vocalization

l Males have better

developed vocal
chords in their
larynx (voice box)
than females.
l Males use their
voices to attract
females.
l Calls are species
specific.
Order Anura – Circulation
l Tetrapods have separated
pulmonary and systemic
circulation.
l This is made more efficient
by partitioning the heart.
l This partitioning is not
complete in amphibians.
l Frog hearts have two atria,
but a single ventricle.
l Blood still remains mostly
separated.
Order Anura – Feeding

l Frogs, like most adult amphibians, are

carnivorous.
l Most will feed on just about anything that
moves and is small enough to swallow
whole.
l Most have a sticky, protrusible tongue.

l Tadpoles are usually herbivorous.

Order Anura – Senses

l Lateral line system present in larval

forms only.
l Ears are used for detecting airborne
sounds.
l Vision is important in most amphibians.
l Frogs have color vision provided by rods
and cones on the retina.
Order Anura – Senses

l Frogs also have tactile & chemical

receptors in their skin, taste buds on the
tongue and palate, and a well-developed
olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity.
Order Anura – Reproduction

l Spring weather signals breeding season and is

marked by calling frogs.
Order Anura – Reproduction
l Frogs pair up with the
male riding on the
females back –
amplexus.
l Fertilization is external.
l Eggs usually deposited
in water, anchored to
vegetation.
Order Anura – Reproduction
l Tadpoles, the aquatic
larval stage, hatch
after 2-21 days
depending on
temperature.
l Usually herbivorous
with keratinized jaws
for scraping algae.
l Three pairs of
external gills which
become internal gills.
Order Anura – Reproduction

l Hind limbs appear

first, followed by front
limbs.
l The tail is gradually
resorbed.
l The tadpole stage
may last a few
weeks or a couple of
years, depending on
species.