Frequency Response with the Bode Plots

Introduction
The frequency response of a system is a measure of the
magnitude and phase of the output signal of a system as a
function of the frequency of the input signal. It is typically
characterized by two components:
Magnitude Response: This shows how much the system
amplifies or attenuates an input signal at different
frequencies.
Phase Response: This indicates the amount of phase shift
that an input signal undergoes at different frequencies when it
passes through the system.
Bode plots are graphs showing the frequency response of a
system for an arbitrary range of frequencies. A Bode plot
consist of two graphs: the magnitude of GH(), and the
phase angle of GH(), both plotted as a function of
frequency .

Logarithmic scales are usually used for the frequency axes

and for |GH()|. This means that the successive calibration
lines are not 0,1,2,3… but actually the number whose logs
are 0,1,2,3,4…i.e. (1,10,100,1000,10000…).

One of the advantages of Bode plots is that they allow easy

determination of system stability. In fact, two very important
stability-related measures, gain and phase margins, are often
determined using Bode plots. These measures of relative
stability can be determined for a particular system with a
minimum of computational effort using Bode plots,
especially for those cases where experimental frequency
response data are available.

Review of Natural and Forced Response

We recall that under the topic of Time Response, a system similar
to the following was considered:

The output C(s) of this system, is given by:

In order to get the corresponding time domain expression for the

output, inverse Laplace transform is usually carried out. One of the
simplest and most methodical approach for doing this, particularly
when the denominator is available in convenient factorized form as
above, is to decompose the expression of C(s) into a summation of
𝐴
partial fractions of the form 𝑆+𝑎 where A and a are integers.

If that is done for the above system, we get

C(s)

And, using well-known methods, determine that A = 2/5 and B =

3/5. Therefore
Which allows the inverse Laplace transform to be applied by
comparing each term in the summation to the table of standard
Laplace forms. In other words,

Recall that under the topic of Time Response, some very important
observations were made from the above example. For example, it
became clear that whenever an input is injected into a system with
(𝑠+𝛼)(𝑠+𝛽)...(𝑠+𝜔)
transfer function G(s) = 𝐺(𝑠) = , independent of
(𝑆+𝑎)(𝑠+𝑏)...(𝑠+𝑧)
the effect of the input on the output, when the partial fractions are
decomposed, C(s) will always be in the form:
𝐴
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 +
𝑠+𝑎
𝐵 𝑍
+ +. . . +
𝑠+𝑏 𝑠+𝑧
This allowed us to generalize that there is always a component in
the output that is determined solely by the form of the system’s
transfer function. Of course, there will be a component or
components of the output determined by the form of the input
itself.
The component determined by transfer function was dubbed
natural response, while the component determined by the input
was termed forced response. In fact, the concept of BIBO stability
was thereafter approached by considering whether the natural
response of the system would decay, stabilize, or explode over
time.
Further exploration in that topic focused on what happens when a
specific type of input, the unit step, is injected into first, second, or
higher order systems.
The topic of frequency response builds on the same foundation,
but goes in a different direction in a number of ways. Most
importantly, the canonical input is no longer a step input, but a
sinusoid. Secondly, (and the student should carefully note this!) the
time response topic focused a lot on the system response during
the transient stage. By way of contrast, the frequency response
topic will (at least initially) focus on the STEADY STATE portion of
the response. Thirdly, the focus in the time response topic was on
the natural response portion of the output, while the focus in
frequency response is on the forced response. Specifically, how the
system affects the input, and generates a forced response.

If a sinusoid (the denominator of whose Laplace transform is 𝑠 2 +

𝜔2 ) is injected into a system, the forced response part will have a
similar denominator, which implies that the steady state out
(assuming BIBO stability for now) will have a similar sinusoidal
form. Since this topic will focus on sinusoids at the input and
output, we will use a representation to which you were introduced
in EEE 204: phasors. Consequently, the typical system under
consideration in this topic will look as follows

where, using normal phasor operations,

By allusion to normal transfer function, we define the system

function as:
And

M(w) is the magnitude frequency response, while 𝜙(𝜔) is the

phase frequency response.
We pause for a moment to consider the implication of the
following. For a sinusoid of any arbitrary frequency, the magnitude
frequency response indicates how its magnitude is affected by the
system, while the phase frequency response shows the phase
difference between the input sinusoid, and the output.
By applying a special signal made up of a sinusoid whose frequency
changes gradually across a very wide range of frequencies (a so-
called “swept sine” signal), and recording the corresponding output
magnitude and phase at each frequency, a very good picture of the
system function can be obtained. The Bode plots are essentially a
graphical representation of this experimental procedure.

Analytical Expression for the Frequency Response

We now consider a system with a generalized sinusoidal input:

Focusing on the forced response portion of the output, C(s), we can

write:
Where

𝐾1
And

𝐾2
Where

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we find that

C(t)

And it can be easily shown that

In other words, given a system with transfer function G(s), the
frequency response G(jw) is obtained by simple vriable
substitution, repelacing s with jw.

Example:

Solution
1
G(s) = 𝑠2 +6𝑠+8
1 1
G(jw) = =
(𝑗𝜔)2 +6𝑗𝜔+8 8−𝜔2 +6𝑗𝜔
 1
M(w) = |G(jw)| =
√(8−𝜔2 )2 +(6𝑗𝜔)2

Sketching the Frequency Response using

Asymptotic Approximations
Since the magnitude and phase frequency responses are both
simple functions of w, it is trivial to use a computer programme to
sketch their shape as w goes from very low values, to very high
values. However, the Bode plot technique applies some tricks to
allow very rapid approxinations. Consider the following system:

For which

As we will see shortly, the Bode technique involves obtaining the

graphical resultant of multiple straight-line segments. Such
resultants would be considerably easier if they require simple
additions and subtractions, rather than the multiplications implied
above. One mathematical operation that converts multiplications
into additions is the log function. Using a very well-known log
function (the decibel, we can have
Logarithmic Scales in Bode Plots
Logarithmic scales are used for Bode plots because they
considerably simplify their construction, manipulation, and
interpretation. A logarithmic scale is used for the -axes
because this allows a much greater range of frequencies to be
covered. The magnitude |P()| of any frequency response
function P() for any value of  is plotted on a logarithmic
scale in decibel (dB) units, where db, the corresponding
decibel value, is defined as

Since the decibel is a logarithmic unit, the db magnitude of a

frequency response function composed of a product of terms
is equal to the sums of the db magnitudes of the individual
terms. Thus, when the logarithmic scale is employed, the
magnitude plot of a frequency response function expressible
as a product of more than one term can be obtained by adding
the individual db magnitude plots for each product term.

The db magnitude versus log plot is called the Bode

magnitude plot, and the phase angle versus Log  plot is the
Bode phase plot. The Bode magnitude plot is sometimes
called the log-modulus plot in the literature.
Sketching Bode Plots as Composites of Basic Forms
Most of the time, the system for which a Bode Plot is to be
drawn is written in the form:

Which consists ultimately of only FOUR types of basic

system types:
G1(s) = s+a
G2 (g) = 1/s+a
G3 (s) = s
G4 (s) = 1/s

We will now review the behaviour of the Bode magnitude

and phase plots for each of them.

1. G(s) = s+a
a. Magnitude Response
First, note that,
G(jw) = (jw +a)
|G(jw)| = √𝜔 2 + 𝑎2
To draw the magnitude response, we must first draw
asymptotic lines. These are lines that join a very small
number of points at which we carry out very rapid estimates
of the value of |G(jw)|, essentially by inspection. For reasons
that should become evident soon, three points are sufficient
to draw the asymptote: (i) a point at which the frequency, w,
is so high, that by comparison, a is insignificant (ii) a
frequency that is so low, that it is insignificant compared to a
(iii) the frequency w=a. We now consider what happens to
|G(jw)| at those points.

i. w<<a:
M = |G(jw)| ≈ √0 + 𝑎2 = a

ii. w >>a:
M = |G(jw)| ≈ √𝜔 2 + 0

iii. 𝜔= a:
20 log M = 20 log a = 20 log 
Note that the simplified logic above is basically that
when w=a, the two approximations (20 loq w and 20 log
a) become equal. We will return to the actual value of
|G(jw)| when w=a later.

The magnitude plot has 20 log M on the vertical axis, and

log w on the horizontal axis. It is drawn on semi-log graph
sheets, with the major horizontal axis labelled in powers of
10, and the major vertical axis labelled in multiples of 6 or
20. Using the latter option for now, we can sketch the
asymptotes for G(s) = s+a
First, we label, and identify two obvious points:

To get at least one more point towards the right of the

graph so we can draw the high frequency asymptote, let us
consider the gradient of that section. A plot of 20 log M
against log w has the following gradient:
Set Log w =x
This becomes a plot of 20 x against x.
I.e. y = 20 x.
Clearly, this has a gradient of 20.
For every 10-fold increase in w, how will 20 log M
change?
20 log M = 20 log 10w = 20 log 10+20 log w = 20 +20 log
w.
This means that, for every 10-fold increase in w, there is an
increase of 20 dB on the vertical axis. Likewise, it can be
confirmed that for every doubling of w, there is an increase
of approximately 6 dB. A tenfold increase in frequency is a
decade, while a doubling in frequency is an octave.
Consequently, we say that the higher frequency asymptote
has a slope of 20 dB per decade, or 6 dB per octave. These
are used in sketching Bode plot. To complete the sketch,
we identify a decade above w=a, and find the vertical point
corresponding to a 20 dB increase. We draw straight lines
through the points.

The combined line seems to “break” at w=a, which makes

it natural to refer to this as the break frequency.
b. Phase Response
First,
G(jw) = (jw +a)
∠(𝐺(𝑗𝑤) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑤/𝑎)

We estimate the value of at some points or

regions of interest.
When w>>a,
∠(𝐺(𝑗𝑤) ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (∞) = 90o
 [Explain: idea is that a is so small compared to w, that it
might as well be zero. Hence w/0]

When w << a,
∠(𝐺(𝑗𝑤) ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0) = 0o
When w == a,

∠(𝐺(𝑗𝑤) ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) = 45o

The slope of the asymptotes generally taken to be 45o per
decade, allowing the following sketch.

Using the same steps above, the asymptotes of the other

basic forms can be obtained.
[Question: how close are these asymptotic approximations
to the actual, real values of |G(jw)| and ∠(𝐺(𝑗𝑤) ?. I will
forward the figure to the class WhatsApp group. Ask them
to compare the asymptotic and actual values]
 Normalization and scaling
Before continuing, we note that the break frequency, a, for
different systems or subsystems, can take on any positive
real value. In order to find a way to ensure that different
subcomponents have the same low frequency asymptote
(the reason for this will become clear soon), we introduce
the notion of normalization and scaling.
To normalize, the quantity a is factored out, to create a
form in which the break frequency is seemingly 1. I.e.
divide through by a. That is,

=
This allows any expression of the form s+a to always have
a low frequency asymptote of zero (20 log M = 20 log 1 =
0).
Note however:
i. This implicitly introduces a new, multiplying constant
term a
ii. The frequency technically changes from s to s/a

We will use the concepts of normalization and scaing

henceforth.

2. G(s) = 1/ s+a
Using the same method as before, and using the concept of
normalization, the asymptotes for magnitude and phase
response are as follows
 3. G(s) = s
The break frequencies for the previous systems occurred
when w = a. For G(s) = s, there is no break freequency.
Hence, there is onlya high freequency asymptote. Using the
same steps as before, it can be easily verified that the
magnitude and phase responses for G(s) =s are as follows:
 4. G(s) = 1/ s
The magnitude and phase response respectively are:
Multi-pole/multi-zero systems
Most real life systems will be more complicated than the 4
we have just considered. However, most physically realizable
system transfer functions can be broken down into
combinations of the 4.
Recall that, for

And

In other words, the total magnitude response is merely the

simple piecewise summation of the responses of the
constituent parts. This will be illustrated in the following
exercise.

Problem: Draw the bode magnitiude plot for the system

below, where
Solution
Overview:
i. Apply normalization to make treatment of low
frequency asymptote easier
ii. Sketch each first-order term in isolation
iii. Carry out piecewise addition for key segments
separated by break frequencies and other frequencies
of interest
iv. Can apply rule of thumb whereby graph starts at 1
decade or more lower than the lowest break frequency,
and ends at least one decade above highest break
frequency

Normalizing,

The range of the magnitude plot would be [What?]

0.1 rad/s to 100 rad/s
At 0.1 rad, all normalized terms have a low frequency
asymptote of zero. We combine the static term with the
integrator term, finding

|G(jw)| = |G(0.1j)|
Assuming K =1, 20 log M = 23.5 dB
Recall, the plot of ½ drops at a rate of 20 dB per decade. This
means that the value when w = 1 rad/s is [what?]
3.5 db
See Fig a in the solution handout.
For the 3 remaining first order terms, we draw a low
frequency asumptote to the respective break frequencies, and
then, high frequency asymptotes rising or falling (as the case
may be) at 20 dB per decade.
This is shown in Figs b,c,d in the solution handout.

Finally, all plots can be superimposed, as shown in Fig e, and

piecewise addition results in the correct combined asymptote
in Fig f.
Finally, note that the asymnptotes themselves are not the
Bode plot curve. They are the scaffolds, which show how the
more graceful curve would move.

Systematic approach
Typically, one wouldn’t need to draw multiple separate
asymptotes and visually combine them. It is important to note
that once the magnitude at the low frequency limit is
determined, the asymptotes always remain constant, drop or
rise at constant rates until some new break frequency is
encountered. Consequently, the usual approach is to construct
a table such as the folowing to keep track of gradients:
[Food for thought: did you notice that Bode applied to just
the forward gain? Why ignore the feedback? Why not to the
closed loop, since that would be T(s)?]
[Go through steps]

Problem: Sketch the Bode magnitude and phase plots for a

system with

Solution
Normalizing,
s
2/35( +1)
G(s) = s
20
s
(s+1)( +1)( +1)
7 50

Lowest frequency: 0.1, highest = 1

Create table:
 Frequency
Description 0.1 1 7 20 50
Pole @ 1 0 -20 -20 -20 -20
Pole @ 7 0 0 -20 -20 -20
Zero @ 20 0 0 0 20 20
Pole@50 0 0 0 0 -20
Total slope 0 -20 -40 -20 -40
(dB/dec)
Value at start = 20 log |G(j0.1)| = 20 x -1.24 = -25 dB
Drawing chart:
See Corel

For phase response

Frequencies of interest are 0.1,10,0.7,70,2,200,5,500
Frequency
Description 0.1 0.7 2 5 10 70 200 500

Pole @ 1 -45 -45 -45 -45 0 0 0 0

Pole @ 7 0 -45 -45 -45 -45 0 0 0
Zero @ 20 0 0 45 45 45 45 0 0
Pole@50 0 0 0 -45 -45 -45 -45 0
Total slope -45 -90 -45 -90 -45 0 -45 0
(deg/dec)

Value at the start: = 0 degrees!

Drawing,…