The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798):

The period between 1660 and 1798 is roughly marked as the Neoclassical Period in the history of English literature.
Moreover, this period is divided into two parts: The Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700), and the
Classical Age or the Augustan Age (18 Century). The Classical Age is further divided into two distinct periods-the
Age of Pope (1700-1744) and the Age of Johnson (1744-1784).

Characteristics
Rationalism
Rationalism is an essential feature of Neoclassical poetry. Neoclassical poetry is a reaction to the Renaissance style
of poetry. It is not like the Renaissance poetry, in which the sentiments play a vital role in writing poetry. But in it,
reason and intellect are dominant elements.

Scholarly Allusions
The Neoclassical poets always loved to make use of scholarly allusions in their poetry. As they were all highly
educated and well-versed in various fields of studies, they all knew a lot about religions, Biblical and Classical
literature. Allusions helped them to convey their message to their readers in a better way. They desired to write in
the manners of their classical masters like Virgil, Horace, and Homer.

Morality
Neoclassical poets rebelled against the romantic nature of poetry of the Renaissance Period. The poets of the
Renaissance period loved to compose poetry just for the sake of poetry. E.g. John Milton. Their main purpose was
to express their feelings. On the other hand, the Neoclassical poets laid stress on morality. They were chiefly
concerned with the didactic aspects of their poetry.

Realism
Realism is the hallmark of Neoclassical poetry. The Neoclassical poets, unlike those Renaissance poets, were not
living in their own world of imaginations. They were hard realists and presented the true picture of their society.
They went deep into the harsh realities. Neoclassical poets were men of action and practically lived in the midst of
people. They avoided abstract ideas, imaginations, thoughts, and idealism in their poetry. Works of Dryden’s and
Pope’s poetries are excellent examples of realism.

Adherence to Classical Rules

The Neoclassical poets were undoubtfully great adherents of classical rules. They revived the classicism in their
poetry by following each and every rule of classicism. Their highest concern was to adhere to the classical rules and
employ them in their poetry as much as possible. For this reason, Neoclassical poetry is also called as ‘Pseudo-
classical poetry’.

Heroic Couplet
The heroic couplet is another hallmark of Neoclassical poetry. The heroic couplet or rhyming couplet consists of
two iambic pentameter lines which rhyme together. Each line is composed of five accents or ten syllables. E.g.:

‘To err is human, to forgive divine’ Pope

It is called ‘heroic’ because of the common employment of this measure in heroic poetry. Neoclassical poets were
the champions of the heroic couplet.No poet in the history of English Literature can compete with the mastery of
Neoclassical poets in handling heroic couplet. They excelled each and every poet in this regard.Chaucer was the
first poet who employed heroic couplet in his poetry. Though many renowned poets of the world tried their hands
on heroic couplet, yet Dryden and Pope are the only poets who outdid everyone in this regard. What is the most
important about these two poets is that they polished the heroic couplet, corrected it, made it regular and more
flexible? It is said that Dryden wrote almost 30,000 heroic couplets.

Mock Epic

A Mock-epic is a sub-section the larger satirical heroic style which can be used for anything from novels to comic
books. It is a long epic poem which is written about a subject that is not really worthy of an epic. Mock epic is the
product of Neoclassical age. Pope’s The Rape of Lock is a good example of the Mock-epic poem. Tassoni’s Rape of
the Bucket is also a great Mock-Epic. The term Mock epic is often applied to other dignified poetic forms. e.g.
Thomas Gray’s comic, Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat (1748 A.D.)

No Passionate Lyricism

Renaissance poetry is popular for its lyrical quality, while Neoclassical poetry is lacking in lyrical features due to
lack of interest of the Neo-classical poets for passion, feelings, and emotions. In fact, they hated such feelings. This
is the reason; very few lyrics were written in the age of Pope and Dryden. They didn’t give free play to their
imaginations; rather they dwelt upon the intellectual aspects of poetry.

Objectivity

Objectivity is another important feature of Neoclassical poetry. As the Neoclassical poets were completely against
subjectivity in poetry, they laid interest in writing objective poetry. They didn’t give way to their feelings, rather
concentrated upon the miseries, hardships, and problems of the people. This is why we find very little information
about the lives of Neoclassical poets in their poetry.

Poetic Diction

The poetic diction of Neoclassical poetry is completely different from the Renaissance poetry. In the later, diction is
flexible and easy to use, while in the Neo-classical poetry, it is restrained, concrete and rigid. The Neoclassical
poets were fond of using different language for poetry. They laid emphasis on a specific style for poetry that would
be different from that of prose. Pope is very conscious about the language of his poetry.

The Restoration Period (1660-1700):

The period from 1660 to 1700 is called the Restoration Period because monarchy was restored in England and
Charles II came back to England from his exile in France and became the King. It is also known as the Tage of
Dryden because Dryden was the most significant literary figure of the age. The Puritans who were previously
controlling the country were finally defeated. As a result, a reaction was launched against whatever they held
sacred. All restraints and discipline were casted away, and a tide of indecency and frivolity swept the country.
Since Charles II and his followers had enjoyed a gay life during their exile in France, they introduced same foppery
and looseness in England as well. As a result, the people were deprived of the old Elizabethan spirit with its
patriotism, creative vigor and the love of adventure and Romance. Morcover, the Puritan spirit with its moral
discipline and love of liberty also became a thing of the past. The writers of this period made two important
contributions to English literature. The first was in the form of realism and the second was a tendency to
preciseness.

The Restoration Poetry:

The Restoration Poetry was mostly realistic and satirical. It was mostly written in the heroic couplet of which
Dryden was the greatest master. He was the most important figure of the Restoration Period and made great
achievements in the fields of poetry, drama and prose. In fact, he was the only poet of his age worth mentioning.
He wrote in a lucid and forceful style that laid the foundation of the classical school of poetry in England.

 A heroic couplet is a pair of rhyming lines that is present in a heroic poem or that relays themes of
heroism within a larger poem. Heroic couplets generally consist of two lines written in jambic pentameter,
though some poets chose to vary the meter, perhaps using blank verse or incorporating enjambment
between the first line and the second line. In general, heroic couplets follow a simple AA end rhyme
scheme.

Furthermore, Dryden's poetry is divided into three groups Doctrinal Poems, Political Satires, and The Fables. His
famous political satires include Absalom and Achitophel and The Medal Dryden's famous doctrinal poems are
Religto Laict and The Hind and the Panther. His fables, written in narrative form, entitle him to rank among the
best story-tellers in verse in England. Palamon and Arcite can be examined in this regard. Dryden's poetry displays
all the characteristics of the Restoration Period and is, therefore, thoroughly representative of that age.

The Restoration Drama and Prose:

Restoration drama showed entirely new trends due to the long break with the past. It was extremely influenced by
the new age that was deficient in poetic feeling, imagination, and emotional approach to life. Rather, it focused on
prose as the medium of expression, and had a realistic, intellectual and critical approach to human life and its
problems. The Comedy of Manners was the most famous form of drama during the Restoration Period. It
portrayed the sophistical life of society's dominant class its insolence, gaiety, curiosity and foppery. The most
popular Restoration dramatist was William Congreve He wrote the best comedies, for instance, Love for Love and
The Way of the World. The chief writer of heroic tragedy was Dryden. His famous tragic plays include Tyrannic Love
All for Love, and The Conquest of Granada In the field of prose, the Restoration Period held its head higher than
poetry and drama. A unique prose style evolved for the first time. This style could be used for plain narrative,
practical business, and argumentative exposition of intricate topics. Dryden was the dominant leader and
practitioner of that new prose style. Other famous prose writers of the period were John Bunyan, John Tillotson,
William Temple, Thomas Sprat, and Viscount Halifax. Besides Dryden, John Bunyan was the greatest prose writer of
the age. His most famous work is The Pilgrim's Progress.

The Classical-or Augustan Age (18th Century):

The 18th century in English literature is called the Classical Age or the Augustan Age. We also call it the Age of
Reason or the Age of Good Sense. The writers of the age produced works of great significance and merit. Tle major
characteristics of the Restoration period-precision and realism-were carried to further perfection. It was during the
18th century that for the first time in the history of English literature prose occupied the front position. The most
important feature of the 18th Century was the origin and development of the novel. This new literary form, which
at present holds a prominent place, was fed and nourished by the great masters such as Defoe, Richardson,
Smollet, Fielding, and others. All these writers laid the secure foundation of this new form. Francis Burney is known
as the 'Mother of English Literature."

The Age of Pope (1700-1744):

The earlier part of the 18th Century is called the Age of Pope, since Alexander Pope was the dominating figure in
that period. The poetry of the Age of Pope is not of a high order. Still, it has some distinct merits such as the
creation of a technically beautiful verse, the clarity of its expression and the finished art of satire. The famous poets
of this age include Alexander Pope (the greatest of all poets of this age), Matthew Prior, John Gay, Edward Young
and others. However, the greatest prose writers of this age were Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison and
Richard Steele. The prose of this age exhibits the classical qualities- for instance, vigor, clarity, and direct
statement..

➤ Satire is the art of making someone or something look ridiculous, raising laughter to embarrass, humble, or
discredit its targets.

Alexander Pope: 1561

Alexander Pope (1688 1744) was an English poet and satirist during the Restoration. The poet and translator
Alexander Pope was born in London in 1688) He was mostly educated at Catholic schools, until 1700 when the
family was forced by anti-Catholic sentiment to settle in Berkshire, outside London, and the young Pope resumed
his education privately. He suffered from poor health, including Pott's disease, which severely stunted his growth
and shortened his life. Nonetheless, he was recognized as a poetic talent relatively early, with his Pastorals being
published in 1709 and the Essay on Criticism (a poem in heroic couplets) in 1711. In the Essay, Pope discusses the
emerging industry of literary criticism castigating, for instance, the kind of eritic who is a 'bookful blockhead,
ignorantly read a person who reads everything that is published but whose interpretations are blinkered by his own
opinions.

Pseudo Classicist:
The true classicism is meant to be a combination of poetic ardor and excellence of form. In Pope the true poetic
ardor and energy is absent, but he is exceedingly careful about the technique of form and style. When we look at
the contents of Pope's poetry we do not find anything worthwhile Satire, didactic poetry, and a flimsy mock-heroic
poem-are all his poetic achievements. They are mere products of intellect, and artificially constructed; they do not
reproduce true classical spirit. Hence it is not correct to describe Pope as a true classicist (Milton, with his poetie-
impulse-and perfection of form, is a true classicist.) The classicism of Pope is the shadow of classicism, it is false or
pseudo-classicism.

 Pseudo classicism refers to the classicism use of imitation through literature and art during the eighteenth
century. The Germans imitated the Romans and the Greek works and tried to do better than them.

Intellectual Poetry:
Pope's poetry was of his age, and it reflected in full measure the spirit of the age. It is intellectual, and its appeal is
to the mind rather than to the heart. It is full of wit and epigram, the brilliancy of which is unsurpassed. Pope is
next to Shakespeare, in contributing quotable lines of verse, which are remarkable for their neatness and brevity.
Here are some of his famous quotes

 To err is human, to forgive divine

 Never elated when someone's oppressed, never dejected when another one's blessed.
 We think our fathers fool, so wise we grow. Our wiser sous, no doubt will think us so.
  For fool rush in where angels fear to tread

The Rape of the Lock as a Social Satire:

This poem shows Pope's genius for satirical poetry which exposes in a absurdities of the high society of the times.
All the recognized weapons of satire have been employed by witty manner the follies-and Pope in a most effective
manner. The principal targets of satire in this poem are aristocratic ladies and gentlemen of Pope's day. Ladies who
learns to roll their eyes and to blush in a coquettish manner. Pope ridicules the fickleness and superficiality of the
ladies by their varying vanities. referring to their hearts as moving toy-shops and their varying vanities.

A Poet of Wit and Fancy:

Pope's subjects of poetry in which he excelled are of the satirical and mock-heroic kind. He is the unchallenged
master of artificial poetry, a poetry dealing with artificial life, and in this sphere, The Rape of the Lock' stands
unmatched. Among the great English poets who had preceded Pope, Chaucer was the painter of actual life,
Spenser of imaginative life, Shakespeare of ideal life, and Milton of moral and spiritual life. It remained for Pope to
give rhythmical utterance to artificial Iffe, and he was eminently fitted for this task because he was gifted with the
power of intellectual expression and perfect propriety of phrase. It is true that Pope had not much to express, he
had hardly any original thing to say, his thoughts are mostly borrowed or common place, but what gives distinction
to his poetry is its lucid expression, His aim was to set the gems, not to create thean. Lessing said, "Pope's great
merit lay in what we call the mechanic of poetry."

Pope's Heroic Couplet:

Pope is the unchallenged master of the heroic couplet, just as Milton is of blank verse. Almost all of Pope's poetry is
written in the heroic couplet. The rhythm of Pope's couplet has perfect smoothness and regularity which have a
pleasing effect upon the ear. Pope mostly used the 'stops' couplet that is, there is a final pause after every couplet,
one couplet does not flow into the next couplet, carrying on its sense. This kind of couplet limits the scope of the
poet for he must cut his thoughts to the size of the couplet. But Pope was the master not the victim of the heroic
couplet. He condensed his thoughts so precisely and chose his words so aptly that he could express his complete
thought within the range of two lines.

Pope, a Classic in Prose:

Mathew Arnold hus called Pope as 'classic in prose'. It looks like a paradox, since Pope was a poet and not a prose-
writer. What Arnold means to say is that Pope's poetic style has all those qualities which gave distinction to prose
i.e. lucidity, balance, imagination, warmth, wit, clearness and logic etc. but is wanting in that moving and
transporting quality which is the hall-mark of true poetry. Lowell said, 'Measured by any high standard of
imagination, he will be found wanting; tried by any test of wit, he is unrivalled.

➤ Best Known Poetry:

Essay on Criticism:
An Essay on Criticism was first published anonymously on 15 May 1711 and had taken Pope around three years to
finish. It is written in a heroic couplet style, which, at the time, was a moderately new poetic form. The poem is a
response to an ongoing debate on the question of whether poetry should be natural or written according to
predetermined artificial rules inherited from the classical past.

The Rape of the Lock:

The Rape of the Lock is Pope's most famous poem and was first published in 1712. A revised version was published
in 1714. It is a mock-epic poem that satirizes a high-society quarrel between Arabella Fermor and Lord Petre, who
had snipped a lock of hair from her head without her permission. However, the satirical style is toned down by the
genuine and almost voyeuristic interest in the fashionable world of 18th century English society.

The Dunciad:
The Dunciad was first published anonymously in Dublin in 1728, but it was clearly authored by Pope. It was
published three different times between 1728 and 1743. The poem celebrates a goddess Dulness and the progress
of her chosen agents as they bring decay, imbecility, and tastelessness to the Kingdom of Great Britain. Many of
Pope's targets were so enraged by The Dunciad that they threatened him.

Moral Essays:
Pope published his "Epistle to Burlington" in 1731, which, about agriculture, was the first of four poems which
would later be grouped under the title Moral Essays (1731-1735). In the first poem, Pope criticized the bad taste of
the aristocrat "Timon" and Pope's enemies claimed he was attacking the Duke of Chandos and his estate, Cannons.
This ended up harming Pope's reputation.

An Essay on Man:
An Essay on Man is a philosophical poem that was written and published between 1732 and 1734. It was written in
heroic couplets and Pope intended it to be the centerpiece of a proposed system of ethics that was to be put forth
in poetic form. He had planned on expanding it into a larger piece of work but died before he could do so. The
poem was dedicated to Henry St John, Ist Viscount Bolingbroke and is an effort to rationalize or rather "vindicate
the ways of God to man" (1.16), a variation of John Milton's clain in the opening lines of Paradise Lost, that he will
"justify the ways of God to men" (1.26). It is comprised of four epistles and received great admiration throughout
Europe when it was published.

Jonathan Swift:
Irish author, clergyman and satirist Jonathan Swift grew up fatherless. Under the care of his uncle, he received a
bachelor's degree from Trinity College and then worked as a statesman's assistant. Eventually, he became dean of
St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. Most of his writings were published under pseudonyms. He best remembered for
his 1726 book Gulliver's Travels.

Irish author and satirist Swift was born in Dublin, Ireland on November 30, 1667. His father, an attorney, also
named Jonathan Swift, died just two months before he arrived. Without steady income, his mother struggled to
provide for her newborn. Moreover, Swift was a sickly child. It was later discovered that he suffered from Meniere's
Disease, a condition of the inner ear that leaves the afflicted nauseous and hard of hearing. To give her son the best
upbringing possible, Swift's mother gave him over to Godwin Swift, her late husband's brother and a member of
the respected professional attorney and judges group Gray's Inn. Godwin Swift enrolled his nephew in the Kilkenny
Grammar School (1674-1682), which was perhaps the best school in Ireland at the time. Swift's transition from a
life of poverty to a rigorous private school setting proved challenging. He did, however, make a fast friend in
William Congreve, the future poet and playwright

At age 14, Swift comenced his undergraduate studies at Trinity College in Dublin. In 1686, he received a Bachelor of
Arts degree and went on to pursue a master's. Not long into his research, huge unrest broke out in Ireland. The king
of Ireland, England and Scotland was soon to be overthrown. What became known as the Glorious Revolution of
1688 spurred Swift to move to England and start anew. His mother found a secretary position for him under the
revered English statesman, Sir William Temple. For 10 years, Swift worked in Surrey's Moor Park and acted as an
assistant to Temple, helping him with political errands, and in the researching and publishing of his own essays and
memoirs. Temple was impressed by Swift's abilities and after a time, entrusted him with sensitive and important
tasks.

During his Moor Park years, Swift met the daughter of Temple's housekeeper, a girl just 8 years old named Esther
Johnson. When they first met, she was 15 years Swift's junior, but despite the age gap, they would become lovers
for the rest of their lives. When she was a child, he acted as her mentor and tutor, and gave her the nickname
"Stella." When she was of age, they maintained a close but ambiguous relationship, which lasted until Johnson's
death. It was rumored that they married in 1716, and that Swift kept of lock of Johnson's hair in his possession
always.

Swift's Major Literary Works:

Between the years 1696-99, Swift wrote two major works: Tale of a Tub, defending the middle position of the
Anglican and Lutheran churches, and Battle of the Books, taking the part of the Ancients (those who believed in the
superiority of the classics and the humanities) against the Moderns (those who upheld the superiority of modern
science, modern scholarship, modern politics, and modern literature). In the Mechanical Operation of the Spirit
(1704), Swift continues his satiric attack on both questionable religious views and questionable knowledge
acquisition, particularly scientific knowledge. In Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, Swift shares his reactions
to the Test Act, a law enacted by Charles 11, requiring office holders to declare their allegiance to the king over the
church. The Journal to Stella (1710-1713), series of letters written by Swift to Esther Johnson and Rebecca Dingley,
includes the poem "The Windsor Prophecy," a satirical attack on the person and personality of the Duchess of
Somerset, Queen Anne's red- haired attendant who did not care for Swift because of disparaging remarks Swift had
written about her family.

Swift is also recognized as a defender of Ireland. In A Modest Proposal (1729), a reaction to English commercial
practices that negatively impacted Ireland, Swift wrote one of the greatest works of sustained irony in English or
any other language. The Drapier's Letters (1724) is Swift's response to the continued subjugation of all aspects of
the lives of those living in Ireland by England. The Letters aroused so much opposition that the English offered a
reward of £300 for the name of the author. Although the Irish knew that he had written the letters, they did not
betray him. They made him a national hero instead. In his most recognized novel, Gulliver's Travels (1726), Swift
presents a satire on all aspects of humanity by pointing out the weaknesses, vices, and follies inherent in all human
beings; the satire reaches its apex in Swift's comparison of Houyhnhnms (horses) and Yahoos (human-like
creatures) in Book IV. The book Gulliver's Travel was an immediate success and hasn't been out of print since its
first run. Interestingly, much of the storyline points to historical events that Swift had lived through years prior
during intense political turmoil.

Not long after the celebration of this work, Swift's longtime love, Esther Johnson, fell ill. She died in January 1728.
Her life's end moved Swift to write The Death of Mrs. Johnson. Shortly after her death, a stream of Swift's other
friends also died, including John Gay and John Arbuthnot. Swift, always bolstered by the people around him, was
now quite troubled.

Death:
In 1742, Swift suffered from a stroke and lost the ability to speak. On October 19, 1745, Swift died. He was laid to
rest next to Esther Johnson inside Dublin's St. Patrick's Cathedral.

The Age of Johnson (1744-1784):

The latter half of the Augustan Age was dominated by Dr. Samuel Johnson and is, therefore, called the Age of
Johnson. During this age, cracks had begun to appear in the edifice of classicism and there were clear signs of
revolt in favor of the Romantic spirit. It was especially noticeable in the field of poetry. The poets who showed
romantic leanings in their poetry are the precursors of the Romantic Revival. These poets include James Thomson,
William Blake, Thomas Gray, William Cowper, William Collins, and George Crabbe. Due to its Romantic inclinations,
we also call the Age of Johnson as the Age of Transition in English Literature. The dominating prose writers of this
age were Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, and Edward Gibbon. They were, indeed, the pillars of the Age of
Johnson and represented in themselves the highest achievements of English prose. After the Age of Johnson came
the Romantic Period. The Neoclassical period officially ended in 1798 when William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge
published the 'Lyrical Ballads’.