Lecture 9:

Rapidly varied flows 1 (Specific Energy)

Objectives:
Ø Specific energy
Ø Critical flow
ØAlternate depths
Ø Local bed rise
Ø Local contraction
and expansion
Constructed riffle (i.e., local bed rise) for
improved spawning habitat
Source: http://www.newbury-hydraulics.com/projects.htm
 Rapidly varied flows:
Rapidly varied flows (RVFs) occur when there is:
- sudden change in channel geometry
- sudden change in the regime of the flow (we will see this soon)

A hydraulic jump downstream of Tinajones reservoir, Chiclayo, Peru.

Source: http://ponce.sdsu.edu/legacy_tales_challenge.html

2
 In channels with very small slope, the Bernoulli’s equation becomes:
V12 V22
y1 + a + z1 = y2 + a + z2
2g 2g

Proof: the Bernoulli’s equation:

2
p V
+a + z = constant
rg 2g

Force balance: Pressure at point A balanced by gravity force normal to bed

𝑝! Δ𝑆 = 𝜌𝑔𝑑Δ𝑆 cos 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑝! = 𝜌𝑔𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦"

See the figure: 𝑑 = 𝑦! / cos 𝜃 and 𝑑 = 𝑦" cos 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑦! = 𝑦" cos ! 𝜃

Small bed slope: cos2 q @ 1 Thus, y1~y2

Þ pA = rgy1 Þ pA / rg @ y1 NOTE: we have neglected

energy losses. Next
lecture we will use
V2 momentum in cases
Þ y +a + z = constant
2g where energy loss is
significant
3
 Specific energy
Specific energy is the energy of the flow referred to channel bed as datum
i.e. z=0 in the energy equation:
V2
Es = y + a
2g
or, Es = y + a
(Q / A)
2

2g
Consider a rectangular channel: Q/A = (bq)/(by) = q/y where b is the channel width. Thus:
q2
Es = y + a
2gy 2 (for a constant q)
Note: up to now, we have used both q and Q
notations for discharge. From now on, q = Q/b
i.e. Q is the total discharge and q is the
Depth (y)
discharge per unit width.

For a constant q, if you plot Es versus y, you get this curve a

45o
as y ® 0, Es ® ¥
Specific energy (Es)
as y ® ¥, Es ® y

4
 The critical depth
For a given discharge, the critical depth yc is the depth corresponding to the minimum
specific energy Esc

yc

45o

Esc Es

The minimum specific energy (called Critical specific energy, Esc)

5
 Subcritical and supercritical flow
For a given discharge,
If the flow is deeper than the critical depth yc , it is called subcritical, i.e. y > yc
If the flow is shallower than the critical depth yc , it is called supercritical, i.e. y < yc

Subcritical y > yc

Subcritical y > yc
yc

Supercritical y < yc Supercritical y < yc

45o

Esc Es

6
 Alternate depths
For a given discharge, for any specific energy Es ,(except for Esc), there are two possible
depths. They are called alternate depths. One of them is subcritical and the other one
is supercritical.

y1
Subcritical

y2
Supercritical
45o

Es Es

V Fr > 1 supercritical
Note: We will see in the next lecture that Froude number, Fr = Fr = 1 critical
gy
Fr < subcritical
7
Remark
V2
Since Es = y +
2g
we can determine V2/2g in the plot:

V2
y
2g

45o
Es
Es

V2
Es = y +
2g
8
 The depth-discharge curve
For a given specific energy Es , the following curve shows the discharge versus depth.

Es = y +a
(Q / A)
2

2g y
y= Es1

y1 Subcritical y > yc

yc

Supercritical y < yc
y2

Q Qmax Q
(for a constant Es= Es1)

For a given specific energy (Es), at the critical depth, the discharge is maximum.
For all other discharges, there are two possible depths, subcritical and supercritical.
9
 Both curves together
Note: in the left curve, the discharge is constant, and in the right curve, the specific
energy is constant.

y
y
y= Es1
y1
Subcritical y > yc

yc
yc Supercritical y < yc
y2

45o

Esc Es1 Es Q1 Qmax Q

(for a constant Q=Q1) (for a constant Es=Es1)
y1 and y2 are the alternate depths corresponding to the given Es1 and Q1
NOTE: yc in left curve ≠ yc in right curve due to different Q
10
 The critical depth
dE s
For a constant Q, at the critical depth, Es is minimum and =0
dy
dQ
For a constant Es, at the critical depth, Q is maximum and =0
dy
Now, we use the above two equations to obtain a formula for the critical depth.
y y

y1
Subcritical y > ycv

yc
yc Supercritical y < yc
y2

45o

Esc Es1 Es Q1 Qmax Q

(for a constant Q=Q1) (for a constant Es=Es1)

11
 The critical depth
At the critical depth the following equation holds:

aQmax
2
Bc
3
=1
gA c
where
Bc is the channel surface width at the critical depth
Ac is the channel cross section area at the critical depth

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Proof:

See next page…

Proof…
Example 1
Water flows down a channel of triangular cross-section as shown. The maximum depth of
flow on the centerline is 1.23 m when the discharge is 2.144 m3/s. Show that the flow is
critical and calculate the critical velocity. Assume a = 1.

60o

15
 Special case: rectangular channels
We now obtain formulas for critical flows in rectangular channels. As we saw, for critical
flow:
aQ 2 B (*)
=1
gA3
In rectangular channels:

a =1 , B=b , Q = Vc A = Vcbyc
Replacing in (*):

Vc = gyc

Moreover, Vc2 yc 3
Esc = yc + = yc + = yc
2g 2 2
or,
2
y c = Ec
3
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 Special case: rectangular channels
Remark: Q Vc yc b
In a rectangular channel, q = = = Vc yc
b b

and

Vc = gyc

Þ q = gyc yc = gyc3

q2
Þ yc = 3
g

( This is a general and useful formula for rectangular channels)

17
Example 2
In a rectangular channel, the discharge is Q = 6.5 m3/s and the channel width is 3 m.
Calculate alternate depths for the specific energy Es = 2.024 m. Assume a = 1.

18
Example 3
In a rectangular channel of width 5 m, find critical depth, velocity and specific energy
if Q = 10 m3/s.

19
 Applications of specific energy
ØA rise in the channel bed
A rise in the channel bed leads to changes in water depth and
velocity.
Consider two points 1 (before the hump) and 2 (after the hump)

1- Energy equation (taking a = 1)

V12 V22
y1 + = y2 + + Dz or Es1 = Es 2 + Dz
2g 2g
2- Continuity
V1 y1 = V2 y2 = q
Combining the above equations we get
q2 q2
y1 + = y2 + + Dz (*)
2 gy12 2 gy 22

One has to solve the above cubic equation for y2 which has three roots. Which one is
correct? The solution is simple: Use the Es curve and go from Es1 to Es2 (where Es 2 = Es1 - Dz )
You can then graphically find the range of y2 using Es2. (see the next page)

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 Effect of a local bed rise
As we just saw when we have a bed rise (Dz) , the specific energy decreases: Es2=Es1-Dz

a) Subcritical flow

y
Recall: a given
specific energy y1
curve applies for
a particular q, y2
therefore if q
does not change,
Dz
we can find flow
transition on the
one curve.
45o
Es2 Es1 Es

As can be seen in the above figure, when the flow is subcritical, a local bed rise
leads to a decrease in water depth ( y2 < y1 ).
Note that, Dy > Dz (compare the slopes), thus, a depression on the water surface is observed.
Remark: the behaviour of subcritical flow is a bit counter-intuitive ( water surface
depression over a rise in bed !).
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Effect of a local bed rise …
b) Supercritical flow
Supercritical case d
Again: Es2 = Es1 - Dz (although increase in
y flow depth is difficult to
see in this figure)

Dz
y2
y1
45o
Es2 Es1 Es

However, when the flow is supercritical, a local bed rise leads to an increase in
water depth ( y2 > y1 ).
(Water surface also rises because both bed level and depth are increased).

22
Effect of a local bed rise …
Maximum possible Dz for a constant Es1 is Dz* = Es1 - Esc where Esc is calculated using Q
(using Q, calculate yc and then Esc)
In this case, Es2 = Es1 – Dz = Esc
y

y1 Subcritical case b

y2=yc

Dz*
45o
Es2 =Esc Es1 Es

The flow becomes critical (y2 = yc). The case of a supercritical flow is also the same.
Dz* is the maximum possible Dz for a constant Es1
If Dz is even more than Dz*, Es1 has to increase i.e. energy before the bed rise must
increase. For subcritical flow, depth increases. This is called choking. See next page.
23
Effect of a local bed rise …
If the local bed rise is greater than Dz* then choking happens.
Upstream depth has to increase to accommodate additional discharge!

y
y1new
y1

y2=yc

Dz
45o
Es
Es2 =Esc Es1 Es1new

Water depth behind the bed-rise increases to provide the required specific energy.
The flow becomes critical ( y2 = yc ).

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Example 4
In a rectangular channel of width 3 m, water depth is 2 m and velocity is 2.2 m/s.
Determine the depth of flow over a gradual rise in the channel bottom of Dz = 0.25 m.
Repeat the solution for Dz = 0.5 m.

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Summary: Effect of a local bed rise Dz (calculation procedure
for rectangular channels)
In order to find the maximum possible bed rise without choking (Dz*),
I- Calculate yc
q2
yc = 3
g
II- Calculate Esc
3 y
Esc = yc
2
y1
III- Dz* = Es1 – Esc (see the figure)

There are three cases as

yc
explained in the next pages.
Dz*
45o
Esc Es1 Es

26
Effect of a local bed rise…
Case 1: if Es1 - Dz = Esc

i.e., the bed rise is critical: Dz = Dz*

In this case y2 = yc
y
and y1 does not change.
y1
This case is described as a control,
because y2 = yc. A control point is
a location where depth is known for
a given discharge, and therefore y2=yc
“controlled”.
Dz*
q2 45o
yc = 3
g Es2 = Esc Es1 Es

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Effect of a local bed rise…
Case 2- Solution procedure if Es1 - Dz > Esc

i.e., if the bed rise is small: Dz < Dz*

y
In this case y1 does not change and
y1
Es1 = Es 2 + Dz
y2
or
q2 q2
y1 + = y2 + + Dz Dz
2 gy 2
1 2 gy 2
2 yc

Solve for y2 by iteration

Note: in iterations, y2 must be chosen 45o
between y1 and yc. (see the plot). Es2 Es1 Es

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Effect of a local bed rise …
Case 3- Solution procedure if Es1 - Dz < Esc

i.e., if the bed rise is large: Dz > Dz*

y
Choking happens and upstream depth increases.
In this case, the water depth downstream is: y1new
y1
y2 = yc.
1- Calculate Esc
3
Esc = yc = Es 2
2
y2=yc
2- The new value of Es1 is
Es1new= Esc + Dz Dz
45o
3- Calculate the new upstream water depth y1new using Es
2
Es2 =Esc Es1 Es1new
q
y1new + = Es1new
2 gy12new
Solution procedures are the same for subcritical and supercritical upstream flow.
Important: If the upstream flow was initially supercritical, as a result of the choking it will
become subcritical.
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 Remark:
Cases 1 and 2 are sketched in the following figure.
By examining the slope of the curve, we observe that:

>> yc , Dy » Dz
for (a) y1 !
(b) y1 > yc , Dy > Dz
Note: there is a problem
(c) y1 < yc , Dy > Dz with water surface c
" yc , Dy » 0
(d ) y1 << (see below)

y=yc

Effect of a local bed rise on the water surface elevation

 Water surface description

a) Subcritical, no choke.
E2=E1-delz

b) Subcritical, critical choke.

E2=E2c=E1-delz
NOTE: all downstream elevations between
critical choke elevations (b and just below c) will
require an increase in upstream water surface.

c) Supercritical, choke.
E2=E1new-delz
Water surface at 1 must go to
subcritical with E1new to get over hump
NOTE: text figure is wrong, the critical
choke is between c and d.

d) Supercritical, no choke.
E2=E1-delz

[Note, yc marks the critical depth, not a water surface]

 Specific energy curves for various discharges
Here we draw the specific energy curve for two different discharges per unit width
i.e. q2 = Q2 / b2 and q1=Q1 / b1 and assume that q2 > q1 .
q2
Note that Es = y + So, for a given y, Es will be larger if q is larger.
2gy 2
Thus, the curve for q2, is in the right side of the curve for q1.

q2 > q1

q2= Q2/b2
45o q1= Q1/b1
Es
Remark: q2 > q1 does not mean that Q2 > Q1

32
 Specific energy curves for various channel widths
Now we consider a constant Q but two different channel widths b1 and b2.
Assume that b2 < b1.
Recall that q = Q/b . Thus, If b2 < b1 then q2 > q1

Thus, as we just saw, the curve for q2, is in the right side of the curve for q1.

y
b1 q1= Q/b1

q2 > q1

b2 q2= Q/b2
q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es

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Specific energy curves for various channel widths
Question:
What happens if the channel width is decreased?
Does the water depth increase or decrease?

b1 b2

q2>q1

q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es

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Answer:
It depends on the flow regime. First, we assume that the contraction is not too narrow.
Assume that there is no head loss. Thus, specific energy remains constant since there is no
change in the bed elevation:

E1 = E2 and z1 = z2 b1 b2

Þ Es1 = Es 2
y
Es remains constant and
we go from the curve q1 to
the curve q2 vertically (along a Subcritical flow:
constant Es). See the figure: y1 Depth decreases
y2
If we are in the subcritical
regime, the flow depth decreases y2 < y1
q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es1 Es
35
 b1 b2

And if we are in the supercritical

regime, the flow depth increases y2 > y1

Supercritical flow:
Depth increases
y2
y1 q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es1
Es

36
 Solution procedure for channel contractions
The numerical solution of channel contraction is simple.
We can use the fact that specific energy
remains constant as there is no
change in the bed elevation:
b1 b2
Es1 = Es 2
q12 q22
Þ y1 + 2
= y2 +
2 gy1 2 gy 22 y

Solve this equation by iteration to get y2.

The range of solution is between y1 and Subcritical flow:
yc2 where yc2 is calculated based on q2: y1 Depth decreases
y2
yc2
yc 2 = 3 q22 / g
q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es1
Es
37
 Solution procedure for channel contractions
The solution procedure when the upstream flow is supercritical, is the same.

b1 b2

yc2 Supercritical flow:

Depth increases
y2
y1 q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es1
Es

38
What happens if the contraction is too narrow?
If Es1 < Esc 2 , the contraction is too narrow (see the figure below)
In the specific energy plot, there will be no intersection between Es1 (vertical line) and
the curve of q2.
The upstream specific energy (i.e. before the contraction, Es1) must increase to meet
with the curve of q2 i.e., the upstream water depth must increase.
Therefore, Choking happens.
Note: q22 3
Esc 2 = yc 2 + 2
= yc 2
2 gyc 2 2
y

q2= Q/b2

45o q1= Q/b1

Es1 Esc2 Es

There is no intersection between Es1 and the curve of q2.

39
Example 5
The discharge in a rectangular channel is 6.5 m3/s, the channel width is b1 = 3 m and the
water depth is y1 = 0.4 m. Calculate the downstream depth (and upstream depth if it
changes) if b2 = 2.5 m, Dz = 0

40
What is the narrowest possible contraction without choking?
Answer: In this case y2 = yc2 where

yc 2 = 3 q22 / g b1 b2
q22
and Es 2 = Esc 2 = yc 2 +
2 gyc22
Again :
y
Es1 = Es 2
q12 q22
Þ y1 + 2
= yc 2 + (*)
2 gy1 2 gyc22 y1
Thus, the only unknown in the above y2=yc2
Equation is q2 and could be solved by
iteration.
q2= Q/b2
This gives you q2 and then b2 = Q/q2 is
the narrowest possible channel without 45o q1= Q/b1
choking. Es1=Esc2
Es

41
Remark : Calculation for supercritical upstream flow is similar.

y2=yc2

y1 q2= Q/b2
45o q1= Q/b1
Es1=Esc2 Es

42
Choking
If Es1 < Esc 2 , the channel is too narrow and choking happens.
Upstream specific energy (i.e. Es1) must increase (to Es1new) to have an intersection with
the specific energy curve for q2 (the red curve below)
That is, the depth before the contraction increases from y1 to y1new ( choking) .

y1new
y1
y2=yc2
q2= Q/b2

45o q1= Q/b1

Es1 Es1new
Es

Note that Es1new is equal to the critical specific energy, Esc2 for q2.
The solution procedure is given in the next page.
43
 Solution procedure if Es1 < Esc 2
i.e. contraction is too narrow and choking happens

In this case y2 = yc2 where

yc 2 = 3 q22 / g

y
We can calculate y1new using
Es1new = Esc 2

y1new
q12 q22 y1
a y1new + = yc 2 +
2 gy12new 2 gyc22 y2=yc2
q2= Q/b2

45o q1= Q/b1

Es1 Es1new Es
Note that Es1new is equal to the critical specific energy, Esc2 for q2.

44
General solution procedure for changes in channel width and/or bed (Dz = z2 - z1)

1- Calculate yc2 , Esc2 , Es1

2
3 , Es1 = y1 + q
yc 2 = 3 q22 / g , Esc 2 = yc 2 1

2 2gy12
4- Compare Es1 and Esc2

Ø If Es1 - Dz > Esc2 : No choking, find y2 using

q12 q22
Es1 = Es 2 + Dz Þ y1 + 2
= y2 + 2
+ Dz
2 gy1 2 gy 2

Ø If Es1 - Dz = Esc2 : Critical condition: y2 = yc2

Ø If Es1 - Dz < Esc2 : Choking: y2 = yc2 find y1new using

q12 3
Es1new = Es 2 + Dz Þ y1new + 2
= yc 2 + Dz
2 gy1new 2

45
Note:
Up to now, we assumed that upstream conditions are known and downstream conditions
are unknown.

Sometimes, downstream condition is known and upstream conditions are required.

The solution procedure will be basically the same.

46