Module name: Individual Project

Semester: 2

Strain Measuring Techniques and Applications

By

Index No. Name Marks

200275A J.S.P. Jeyaraj

Date of submission 16/11/2022

Due date of submission 16/11/2022

Advisors’/Instructors’ names, associations and signature

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Mr. M.R.S. Perera
University of Moratuwa

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Moratuwa
Sri Lanka
Summary
Strain measurement of materials is a very important process in engineering. The strain
undergone by a material needs to be determined for a given load in designing basically any
equipment. Strain cannot be easily measured using measuring instruments as most materials
undergo very small deformations. Hence, there are certain techniques to calculate strains
experimentally. One of the very effective methods and the method under study in this practical
is strain measurement using strain gauges and strain rosettes.

Table of Contents
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 2

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... 2

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3

2 Theory ................................................................................................................................ 4

3 Material and methods ......................................................................................................... 4

4 Observations ...................................................................................................................... 4

5 Analysis and results ........................................................................................................... 6

6 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 18

7 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 20

8 References ........................................................................................................................ 21

Appendices ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

1 Introduction
When structural members are loaded longitudinally and laterally, they tend to deform resulting
strains in the members. A strain is basically the ratio between change in original dimension and
the original dimension and the direction is usually in the direction of the loading, hence
longitudinal loads give longitudinal strains and lateral loads give lateral strains.

Measuring strains have become easier than measuring stresses due to strain gauges. The strain
gauges use the simple theory of dependency of resistance on the wire length. When the member
attached with strain gauges deforms under loading, the strain gauge deforms proportionately
changing its resistance which can be measured and then can be converted to the strain. The
resistance measurement of the resistors is somewhat difficult hence a Wheatstone bridge is used
for this purpose (further explained in the theory section).

During this practical we loaded a cantilevered beam and a circular hollow shaft under different
loading conditions and observed the strain under these conditions.

Longitudinal strain ε is given by the following equation where ΔL is the change in length and L
is the initial length.

Ε=

For shear strain (γ) however no ratio is considered but the tan value of angle of distortion (α) is
used. Since for small angles tan(α) ≈ α(rad);

γ≈α
2 Theory
Strain gauge use a very simple but effective theory of dependency of resistance of a conductor
to the length of the conductor. These strain gauges are rigidly attached to beams under study
and they deform along with the rod when a load is applied to them.

The next challenge in this is reading out resistance value, for this we connect these in a
wheatstone bridge arrangement as shown below. Here instead of using 4 resistors we use 4
strain gauges in order to obtain a voltage reading as the output.

Strain rosette

There are three types as following.

1. Delta strain gauge rosette

2. Rectangular strain gauge rosette
3. Star strain gauge rosette

All three of the above are important and are chosen according to the required purpose. These are
simply 3 or more strain gauges connected at known angles to each other
Normal strain in any direction (θ) is given by,

1 1 𝛾
𝜀 / = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

εX= normal strain at a point in x-direction

εY = normal strain at a point in y- direction

γXY = shear strain at a point on x face in y direction

Referring to the rectangular strain gauge arranged shown in above figure

𝜀𝐴 = (𝜀𝑛)𝜃 = -45⁰
𝜀𝐵 = (𝜀𝑛)𝜃 = 0⁰
𝜀𝐶 = (𝜀𝑛)𝜃 = 45⁰

Gauge factor which is givenn

Substituting that above angles and solving them simultaneously can be determined.

Another parameter which is useful is the gauge factor which is given by the following equation.

R ,
ε=
G×R ,

R(g,l)- Resistance value at loaded condition

R(g,ul)-Resistance value at the unloaded condition

G-Gauge constant
Mohr’s circle

The Mohr’s circle is a very useful thing when it comes to calculating various strain values.
These can be easily plotted using the following equations.

1 1 𝛾
𝜀 / = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

𝛾 1 𝛾
=− 𝜀 −𝜀 sin 2𝜃 + cos 2𝜃
2 2 2

Eliminating 𝜃 from the above equations to get the Mohr’s circle.

𝜀 −𝜀 +( ) =𝑅

Where: 𝜀 =

𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦 2
𝑅 = (
2
) +( )

Orientation of principal planes

tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜀𝑥 −𝜀𝑦)

(𝜀 + 𝜀 ) 𝜀𝑥 − 𝜀𝑦 2 𝛾
𝜀 , = ± ( ) +( )
2 2 2
3 Material and methods
 Aluminium I-beam (attached with strain rosettes and strain gauges)
 Hollow circular shaft (attached with strain rosettes and strain gauges)
 Strain gauge apparatus (beam mount, load display, strain gauge wiring, etc.)
 Load cell
 Meter ruler
 Vernier Calliper

Experimental Steps

Part 1: Pure bending of an I-beam

The I- beam was already fixed on the strain gauge apparatus and we took length
measurements of the setup using a meter ruler (effective length of the beam, distance to the
strain gauges).

Then we brought the loading point of the load cell very close to the I-beam along its central
axis making sure that the load cell reading is still 0.

At this moment we measured all the strain gauge values from A-G (marked in the figure
below) for the unloaded condition.

We also measured the distance to 2 points of the I-beam from a fixed point to calculate the
deflection.

Then we applied a load of 30 pounds using the load cell. We took the voltage readings of the
strain gauges A-G and input theses values along with the unloaded conditions values to a
computer software which uses these voltage values and convert them to the relevant strain
values.

Then we unmounted the I-beam and measured the cross-section dimensions using a vernier
calliper.

Figure 1

1
Part 2: Pure torsion of circular shaft

This was also mounted onto the strain gauge apparatus by the instructor. This time it was
mounted with a special device which only allows torsion in the shaft and prevents bending.

We took the relevant lengths prior to the loading using a meter ruler (effective length of shaft,
location of strain gauges, torque arm length). We also took the voltage readings of each strain
gauge (A-H) for the unloaded condition. This was done when the load reading was zero.

Then we applied a load of ___ pounds to the torque arm using the load cell.

Then we took readings of all the strain gauges (A-H). Then we unmounted the shaft and
measured the external diameter using the vernier calliper.

Figure 2

Part 3: Bending and torsion loading

This time the mount which prevents the bending was removed. The length measurements
were not taken again since the same shaft is reused.

We brought the load cell probe close to the torque arm and took the strain gauge readings
while the load reading was 0. We also took the distance from a fixed point to 2 points on the
shaft to calculate the deflection.

Then we applied a load of 25 pounds to the torque arm. Then we took the readings of the
strain gauges (A-H) and input these values along with the unloaded condition values to the
software to calculate the strain values.
2
Then we unmounted the shaft from the strain gauge apparatus.

Figure 3

3
Observations

4
5
4 Analysis and results
Calculations for practical values

1 1 𝛾
𝜀 / = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
2 2 2

Where 𝜀 / is the normal strain reading from the strain rosettes.

𝜀 = Longitudinal strain

𝜀 = Lateral strain

𝛾 = Shear strain

Part 1:

Considering arrangement as in figure 1:

For strain gauge E:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟒 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(90) + sin(90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟒 = 𝜀 +𝜀 +
2 2

For strain gauge F:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(−90) + sin(−90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 −
2 2

For strain gauge G:

1 1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(0) + sin(0)
2 2 2

6
 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 = (𝜀 )

By solving the above three equations:

𝜀 = −𝟕. 𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 × 10

𝜀 = 19.1392 × 10

𝛾 = 8.9325 × 10

𝜀 + 𝜀
𝜀 = = 5.74215 × 10
2

𝜀 − 𝜀 𝛾
𝑅= + = 14.12191 × 10
2 2

Part 2:

Considering arrangement as in figure 2:

For strain gauge E:

1 1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(90) + sin(90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟒𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 +
2 2

For strain gauge D:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(−90) + sin(−90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 −
2 2

7
For strain gauge C:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟒𝟔 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(0) + sin(0)
2 2 2

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟒𝟔 = (𝜀 )

By solving the above three equations:

𝜀 = 1.14846 × 10

𝜀 = −3.69946 × 10

𝛾 = −1.27588 × 10

For strain gauge F:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟏 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(90) + sin(90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟏 = 𝜀 +𝜀 +
2 2

For strain gauge H:

1 1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟐 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(−90) + sin(−90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟗𝟐 = 𝜀 +𝜀 −
2 2

For strain gauge G:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(0) + sin(0)
2 2 2

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟎 = (𝜀 )

By solving the above three equations:

𝜀 = 6.38000 × 10
8
 𝜀 = 1.27780 × 10

𝛾 = 2.04162 × 10

The average values of the 2 strain gauges are taken for the calculation:

𝜀 = 3.76423 × 10

𝜀 = −1.21083 × 10

𝛾 = 3.82870 × 10

𝜀 + 𝜀
𝜀 = = 1.27670 × 10
2

𝜀 − 𝜀 𝛾
𝑅= + = 3.138876 × 10
2 2

Part 3:

Considering arrangement as in figure 2:

For strain gauge E:

1 1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(90) + sin(90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 𝜀 +𝜀 +
2 2

For strain gauge D:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟒 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(−90) + sin(−90)
2 2 2

9
 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟒 = 𝜀 +𝜀 −
2 2

For strain gauge C:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟐 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(0) + sin(0)
2 2 2

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟐 = (𝜀 )

By solving the above three equations:

𝜀 = 1.78662 × 10

𝜀 = −3.31710 × 10

𝛾 = −2.55137 × 10

For strain gauge F:

1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟑 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(90) + sin(90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟑 = 𝜀 +𝜀 +
2 2

For strain gauge H:

1 1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(−90) + sin(−90)
2 2 2

1 𝛾
−𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝜀 +𝜀 −
2 2

For strain gauge G:

10
 1 1 𝛾
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟏 = 𝜀 +𝜀 + 𝜀 −𝜀 cos(0) + sin(0)
2 2 2

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟔𝟏 = (𝜀 )

By solving the above three equations:

𝜀 = 7.65610 × 10

𝜀 = 3 × 10

𝛾 = 1.02082 × 10

The average values of the 2 strain gauges are taken for the calculation:

𝜀 = 1.27611 × 10

𝜀 = −1.65854 × 10

𝛾 = −7.65275 × 10

𝜀 + 𝜀
𝜀 = = −1.91215 × 10
2

𝜀 − 𝜀 𝛾
𝑅= + = 1.516395 × 10
2 2

11
Calculations for theoretical values

Second Moments of inertia

For I-beam (I):

1 𝑎(𝑑 + 𝑐)(𝑐 + 𝑑 )
𝐼= 𝑏ℎ − 2 ×
12 48

1 27.04 × (57.56 + 66.98)(66.98 + 57.56 )

𝐼= × 59.06 × 76.28 − 2 ×
12 48

𝐼 = 1090077.055 𝑚𝑚 = 1.09 × 10 m

For circular shaft:

𝜋
𝐼= × (𝐷 − 𝑑 )
64

𝜋
𝐼= × (76.94 − 37.5 )
64

𝐼 = 1623126.524 𝑚𝑚 = 1.6231 × 10 𝑚

Polar moment = J= 2I = 3.2462 × 10 𝑚

R1 = d/2

R2 = D/2

12
From Bending formula:

= =

This implies:

𝑀𝑌
𝜎=
𝐼

But σ = Eε

𝑀𝑌
𝜀=
𝐸𝐼

Part 1

 Load = 30 pounds = 13.61 kg = 13.61 x 9.81 N = 133.51 N

 Strain gauge location = 66.8 cm
 Beam Deflection = 2.45 cm
 Bending Moment (M) = 133.51N x 0.668 m = 89.19Nm

𝜀=

89.19 × (38.1) × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.090077055 × 10

𝜀 = 4.51788 × 10

89.19 × (−38.1) × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.090077055 × 10

𝜀 = −4.51788 × 10

89.19 × −20.0 × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.090077055 × 10

𝜀 = −2.37159 × 10

13
 89.19 × (20.0) × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.090077055 × 10

𝜀 = 2.37159 × 10

𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 0 (neutral axis)

Part 2

Under pure torsion there will only be shear strains and there will be no direct strains.

Using torque formula:

𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝛩
= =
𝑟 𝐽 𝐿

Using τ = Gγ we can obtain:

𝑇𝑟
𝛾=
𝐺𝐽

G of Aluminium = 26GPa

Torque applied (T) = 111.2454 N x 0.117m = 13.016 Nm

 Load = 25 pounds = 11.34 kg = 11.34 x 9.81 N = 111.2454N

 Torque arm length = 11.7 cm

13.016 × 38.47 × 10
𝛾 =
26 × 10 × 3.2462 × 10

𝛾 = 5.93268 × 10

13.016 × −38.47 × 10
𝛾𝑩 =
26 × 10 × 3.2462 × 10

𝛾𝑩 = −5.93268 × 10

𝛾 =𝛾 = 𝛾 =𝛾 = 𝛾 =𝛾 =0

14
 Part 3

Bending Moment (M) = 111.2454N x 0.707m = 78.65 Nm

78.65 × 38.47 × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.623126524 × 10

𝜀 = 2.701607147 × 10

78.65 × −38.47 × 10
𝜀 =
69 × 10 × 1.623126524 × 10

𝜀 = −2.701607147 × 10

𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 0 (neutral axis)

Mohr’s Circles

Part 1

× 10

× 10

15
Part 2

× 10

× 10

Part
× 10 3

16 × 10
Comparison of theoretical and practical values

Part 1

Strain Gauge Distance from Strain value

neutral axis
Theoretical Practical
(mm)

A 38.10 4.51788 × 10 −59.9305 × 10

B -38.10 −4.51788 × 10 61.2832 × 10

C -20.00 −2.37159 × 10 28.0784 × 10

D 20.00 2.37159 × 10 −29.3371 × 10

E 0 0 10.2084 × 10

F 0 0 1.2759 × 10

G 0 0 −7.6549 × 10

Part 2

Strain Gauge Distance from Strain value

neutral axis
Theoretical Practical
(mm)

A 38.47 2.701607147 × 10 −2.5518 × 10

B -38.47 −0.593268 × 10 10.2084 × 10

C 0 0 11.4846 × 10

D 0 0 5.1039 × 10

E 0 0 −7.6549 × 10

F 0 0 14.0371 × 10

17
G 0 0 6.38 × 10

H 0 0 −6.3792 × 10

Part 3

Strain Gauge Distance from Strain value

neutral axis
Theoretical Practical
(mm)

A 38.47 2.701607147 × 10 −10.70571 × 10

B -38.47 −2.701607147 × 10 10.47397 × 10

C 0 0 1.78662 × 10

D 0 0 −5.1034 × 10

E 0 0 −20.4103 × 10

F 0 0 8.9323 × 10

G 0 0 7.6561 × 10

H 0 0 −1.2759 × 10

5 Discussion
Importance of strain gauges in strain measurements

Strain is a very important factor when choosing a material for engineering designs. However,
measuring strain is a hassle if conventional measuring instruments are used since the change
in length or change in angle considered for the strain calculation might be very small.
Therefore, strain gauges are used to measure strains in members.

18
Strain gauges can effectively measure lateral and longitudinal strains using the theory
explained in the theory section above. While strain rosettes can effectively measure principle
strains which enables finding out shear strains.

Since members are used for structural rigidity and strength, they will undergo varying loads
resulting in varying strains. The strain gauges allow us to monitor these varying strains in real
time helping us to rectify issues in members immediately (airplane body parts, bridges,
railway tracks, etc.). Also, the signals can be easily transmitted very long distances since they
are electrical signals hence effective monitoring of very large or distant components is easier
and cheaper.

The cost of production of these items are quite low due to the simplicity and lesser
components. Also, since these are producing electrical signals the need for ADCs (Analog to
Digital Converters) and transducers are minimum. Hence the strain gauges are cost effective
too.

The readings of strain gauges are very reliable over a wide range of environmental
conditions. However, if subjected to big temperature changes readings might be erroneous
but there are special gauges with built-in thermistors to manage this too.

Apart from strain measurements these are indirectly used to obtain torque and power
measurements of rotating items too. This is simply done by converting the strain values
obtained to torque and power values. These applications can be seen in turbines, ships,
automobiles, wheels, propellers, and machines.

The usage of these in bridges, building columns, automobile components, aerospace

components etc. have made the applications that require strain measurements very cheap,
accurate and easy.

Reasons for differences in theoretical and practical values

The theoretical values are derived assuming that the beam and shaft are isotropic, but in real
life situations the shafts are not isotropic due to various dents, surface and internal
imperfections and other factors. Hence the theoretical value will not give a clear view of the
rod in practical scenarios.

19
Another reason could be the change in practical conditions to the strain gauge’s calibrated
conditions. The change in temperature, pressure, and other conditions might affect the values
given by the strain gauge.

The beams are being used over and over again in the laboratory. Though we cannot expect
the beam to deform or fail there could be some damage in these beams changing their
Young’s modulus and etc. Hence the calculated theoretical values may differ from the
practical values.

There might be some issues in the strain gauge mountings too. These might be loose or
broken resulting in erroneous readings.

Importance of strain rosettes

The strain gauge can only measure the strains due to stresses in one direction. To get strain
readings in multiple direction 3 strain gauges are connected at known angles to make the
strain rosette. These strain rosettes give 3 different strains for 3 angles from which we can
easily calculate the principal stresses and shear strains.

This functionality is the main reason why we use strain rosettes in strain gauges. This allows
us to know not only principal stresses but also the shear stresses too.

6 Conclusions
Strain gauges are a very convenient way to find strains in a loaded member.

Strain rosettes must be used to find strains in multiple directions.

The accuracy of the strain gauge is very good and is a very reliable device to measure strains
in members.

20
7 References

 “[updated] strain gauge: Principle, types, features and applications,” Encardio Rite,
30-Sep-2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.encardio.com/blog/strain-gauge-
principle-types-features-and-
applications/#:~:text=Strain%20Gauges%20are%20important%20geotechnical,its%2
0variation%20with%20time%2C%20quantitatively. [Accessed: 15-Nov-2022]
 S. Systems, “Strain gauge technology in field testing,” Load Cells, Torque Sensors,
and Measurement Services. [Online]. Available: https://www.sensing-
systems.com/blog/strain-gauge-technology-in-field-testing. [Accessed: 15-Nov-2022]
 G. Hollings, “Strain gauges: How they work, applications, and types,” enDAQ Blog
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