STRUCTURAL

GEOLOGY AND
ROCK MECHANICS
Table of Contents :
01 ATTITUDE OF BEDS
02 OUTCROPS

03 GEOLOGICAL MAPS
04 STUDY OF
STRUCTURES
a. Folds, Faults and Joints- Their
Bearing on Engineering
Construction
INTRODUCTION:
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology is the study of factors
such as origin, occurrence, classification,
type and effects of various secondary
structures like folds, faults, joints, rock
cleavage and are different from those
primary structures such as bedding and
vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at
the time of their formation (Tandon, 2013).
ROCK MECHANICS
Rock Mechanics is the theoretical and
applied science of the mechanical
behavior of rock. It is that branch of
mechanics concerned with the response
of rock to the force fields of its physical
environment. It is an important field in
civil engineering as it applies in the
majority of infrastructure projects
including dams, roads, tunnels, bridges,
buildings, and protection of slopes
(Geoengineer, n.d.).
ATTITUDE OF
BEDS
ATTITUDE OF BEDS

Attitude
a general term for the
orientation of a line or
plane

it refers to the three

dimensional orientation
or positioning of a given
geological feature such
as a bed, a joint, a fault,
and others.
 PLANAR
Two important principle components:
strike and dip

➤Geologic structures:
beddings, joints, faults, axial planes
and such.
➤Methods in determining the
attitude:
strike and dip
dip-line trend and plunge
STRIKE AND DIP
Dip (inclination) The angle of
inclination of the surface of a The azimuth direction line
formed by the intersection
rock unit or fault measured from of horizontal plane and the
plane of interes
a horizontal plane. Includes both
an angle of inclination and a
direction toward which the rock
is inc lined. For Ex.,
82°SE
17°SW
Dip values always are in the
range 0-90°. A dip angle of 0° the bedding or geological
layers and planes that are
defines a horizontal attitude. not horizontal

90° of dip describes a vertically

oriented plane.
0-20°: Shallow
20-50°: Moderate
50-90°: Steep
Types of Dip
True Dip - is the shortest distance of
the dip of a bed or rock formation or it is
the maximum dip or slope of a bed with
respect to the horizon.

Apparent Dip - the angle measured in

any direction other than the true dip
direction. The amount is always less
than the true dip.
DIP-LINE TREND AND PLUNGE

As the name suggests, this

method is similar to the
method trend and plunge
of in determining linear
attitude. This method relies
on the implicit 90° angle
between true dip azimuth
and the strike.
 BRUNTON COMPASS

Geologists use a Brunton or Clino compass to measure strike and dip. When
using the compass to determine the attitude of a plane the edge of the compass
is placed against the inclined surface and then the bulls- eye bubble is centered.
In this configuration the compass lies in a horizontal plane and its edge is
parallel to the line produced by the intersection of the imaginary horizontal
plane and the inclined surface or layer. The sighting armature points in the
direction. that this line is oriented, and this direction is read directly from the
compass.
BRUNTON COMPASS
FEATURES:

Contains a magnetic needle that

always seeks true magnetic north.
Has bull's eye level and clinometer
level which levels the body of the
compass within the horizontal
plane and measure angles within a
vertical plane, respectively.
The perimeter of the compass is
divided into degrees based on one
of two formats: quadrant and
azimuth
THE RIGHT HAND RULE

This rule is followed by most geologist in

the world for consistency. The azimuth
direction of the strike is recorded such
that true dip is inclined to the right of the
observer. In this case, the strike azimuth
could be to any quadrant.

Right hand rule is when you are facing the

strike direction and your right side is
dipping downward
NOTE: When you apply this rule, the thumb represents the direction of the
strike and the four remaining fingers represents the direction of the dip
 LINEAR
➤ Two important principle
components: trend and plunge
geologic structures: folds,
hinges, elongated minerals,
cleavage, bedding intersection,
etc.
➤Methods in determining the
attitude:
trend and plunge
pitch/rake
TREND AND PLUNGE
Trend is the projecting line onto the
horizontal plane. It is the azimuth
direction of a line in map view (top
view). Since trend is measured in top
view, vertical line has no definable
trend. Meanwhile, plunge is the angle
of inclination of a line measured in a
vertical plane. It is the angle from the
horizontal line to the line itself. It
shows how the particular line dips with
respect to the horizontal line. And
plunge ranges from 0-90°
 PITCH / RAKE

This method is used when it is

difficult to 4 measure the trend due
to the steepness of the plunge.
Pitch, synonymous to rake, is the
angle between the line and the
strike of the plain that contains the
line.
OUTCROPS
WHAT IS OUTCROP?
When weathering and erosion expose part of a rock layer or formation, an
outcrop appears. An outcrop is the exposed rock, so named because the
exposed rock "crops out.”

Outcrops provide opportunities for field geologists to sample the local

geology-photograph it, hold, touch, climb, hammer, map, sniff, lick, chew,
and carry it home. Classes often visit outcrops to see illustrations of the
principles of geology that were introduced in lecture. You often can see
geologists or students identifying rocks in roadcuts, outcrops along the
road where highway construction exposed the rocks. Mountainous
regions, where any loosened Earth material swiftly washes away, contain
some of the best outcrops because a greater percentage of the rock
formation lies exposed.
WHAT IS OUTCROP?

Rocks crop out especially well across steep slopes, above the tree line
(elevation above which trees cannot grow), and on land scraped free of
soil by bulldozer-like glaciers. Sediment collects and plants grow in flatter
areas, obscuring the rocks. In some areas soil and sediment may
completely cover all the underlying rock, such as in the southeastern
United States. However, in the desert southwest, the opposite is often the
case. Outcrops cut the cost of mapping for geologists. The greater
expense of geologic mapping in an outcrop-free area results from high-
priced drilling to sample the rocks hidden below the surface.
TYPES OF OUTCROPS
There are two types of outcrop created because of selective erosion of
rocks in certain areas known as Outlier and Inlier.
TYPES OF OUTCROPS
Outlier - It is an exposure of a younger
bed surrounded by the outcrops of older
formation. It results due to excessive
erosion or due to faulting followed by
erosion.

Inlier - It is an outcrop of older rock

surrounded by the outcrops of younger
rocks. Inliers are typically formed by the
erosion of overlying younger rocks to
reveal a limited exposure of the older
underlying rocks. These are thus reverse
of outliers. Valley formation is a common
process of erosion, giving rise to inliers.
OUTCROP CONFIDENCE LEVEL

Outcrop confidence is the relative measure of the predictability or

homogeneity of the structural domain and the lithology of the rock
unit from one exposure to another or to the proposed site of
investigation.
 The Three Levels of Outcrop Confidence are defined as:

Level I: High-Rock units are massive and homogeneous, vertically and

laterally extensive. Site geology has a history of low tectonic activity.

Level II: Intermediate Rock characteristics are generally predictable, but have
expected lateral and vertical variability. Structural features produced by
tectonic activity tend to be systematic in orientation and spacing.

Level III: Low- Rock conditions are extremely variable because of complex
depositional or structural history, mass movement, or buried topography.
Significant and frequent lateral and vertical changes, rock units can be
expected. Once a rock unit has been established, it can be defined by
classification elements and analyzed for performance in relation to selected
performance objectives.
OUTCROP PATTERN
Geologic maps depict the locations of different rock units and buildings on the
surface of the earth. Many of these systems engage with topography in
predictable ways because they are planar or nearly planar elements.
OUTCROP PATTERN
Flat-lying Beds - are horizontal or
almost horizontal are known as
flat-lying beds. Their contacts must
be horizontal as well, because
contacts on maps are roughly
parallel to contour lines. The
different colors used to classify
rock units are limited by contour
lines and thereby accentuate the
topography on geologic maps
depicting flat-lying rocks.
OUTCROP PATTERN
Plunging Folds- Plunging
fold map patterns create
zig-zag patterns that shift
direction at the fold hinges.
Anticlines descend in the
direction in which folds
close, while synclines
descend in the direction in
which folds open.
OUTCROP PATTERN
THE RULE OF Vs
Mesozoic Rocks along San Juan
The "Rule of Vs," which says that when
dipping surfaces are incised by stream
valleys or canyons, their map view would
render a "V" in the direction of dip, is one of
the most significant generalities. Whether
the surfaces are vertically dipping, they will
not form a "V"; if they are horizontal, they
will meet the contours, resulting in a "V" that
points uphill. The beds in the picture slant to
the left and toward the viewer. The outcrop
pattern is such that the beds "V" in the way
they dip wherever they are split by gullies.
EXAMPLE OF OUTCROP
On Ordnance Survey maps in Great Britain, cliffs are
distinguished from outcrops: cliffs have a continuous line
along the top edge with lines protruding down; Outcrops
have a continuous line around each area of bare rock.
GEOLOGICAL
MAPS
WHAT IS GEOLOGICAL MAPS?
Geological map or "geologic maps" are a graphical
representation of arrangement of geological and structural
features of a particular arca including rocks. sediments, inclined
strata, formations, faults, folds, minerals, groundwater along
with others that can be observed or found beneath the Earth's
surface.
GEOLOGICAL MAPS
Geologic maps are tools portraying interpretive, three-
dimensional views of rock. sediment, and soil units that depict
their distribution and age relationships based on observations
of outcrops in the field, interpretation of aerial photographs or
satellite Images, or information obtained during the drilling of
exploratory boreholes of geological mapping (Encyclopedia,
2018).
These provide information on Earth's structure and other features
below the Earth's surface and offer baseline data for mineral and
energy resources.
● First modern geologic map was
drawn in year 1801 by William Smith, a
British canal builder.
● Published this geological map in 1815
that covered the whole of England and
Wales, and parts of Scotland.
● His work was the first geological map
covering such a large area in detail and
first stratigraphical analyses to utilize
paleontological indices (AAPG WIKI,
2015).
ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGICAL
MAPS
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

BASE MAP
● Graphic representation of
selected fundamental map
information that is used as a
framework upon which additional
data of a specialized nature may
be compiled.
● Used in geological maps is
usually a topographic map,
depicts the shape of the land
using contour lines of a set
elevation
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

MAP EXPLANATION OR LEGEND

● Table that displays all the colors

and symbols used on a map.
● From the most recently
composed geologic unit to the
oldest, a description of the type of
rocks and age are listed next to the
color that represents them on the
map.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

FORMATION LABEL
It includes symbols that follow a
specific protocol.

● Uppercase and represent the

geologic time or period of the
formation.
● Lowercase letters represent the
formation name, abbreviated rock
description, or both.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

COLOR
● To represent various types of
geologic features or units.
● Color charts that show suggested
colors for different geologic ages.
As well as colors for volcanic and
igneous rocks.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

CONTACT LINES

● It separate and mark the

boundary between two adjacent
geologic formations.
● When two geologic units are
located next to each other, the
place where they meet is called a
contact.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

FAULT LINES

A fault line (a thick line) indicates

geologic units that have been
moved by faults after they have
been formed.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

FOLD LINES

A fold is a bend in a geologie unit

that forms due to a change in
pressure.
● 2 major categories of folds and
one minor category (anticlines,
synclines, and monoclines)
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS

STRIKE AND DIP LINES

These look like the capital letter T. It
is composed of 3 elements: a long
line, a short line, and a number.
● Strike line or long line indicates
what part of the bed is still
horizontal.
● Short line or dip line and indicates
which way the bed is tilted.
● Number, called the dip, indicates
the degrees how much the bed is
tilted.
 ELEMENTS OG GEOLOGICAL MAPS
GEOLOGICAL CROSS-
SECTION
Graphical representation in a
vertical plane of the interpretation
of the disposition of the materials in
the subsurface. It shows how the
different types of rock are layered
or configured, and it portrays
geologic structures beneath the
earth's surface ( faults and folds).
TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL
MAPS
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

1. Surface Geological Map-

Contains geological information
below the surface. These maps
have various scales, 1:50,000 or
greater.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

2. Outcrop Map -A type of

geologic map that shows the
distribution and shape of
actual outcrops, leaving those
areas without outcrops blank.
This type of map provides
information about rock
properties and its structure
condition.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

3. Overview Geological
Map- Gives information
about formations that have
been revealed, as well as
the location of the
extrapolation of formation
is still covered by a layer of
Holocene.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

4. Structure Map- A type of

geological map whose
contours represent the
elevation of a particular
formation, reservoir or
geologic marker in space,
such that folds, faults and
other geologic structures
are clearly displayed.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

5. Schematic Geological
Map- Contains geological
data based on topography.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

6. Thematic Geological Map-

Contains geological
information about natural
resources and potential
energy in certain locations
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

7. Topography Map- The

distinctive characteristic of a
topographic map is the use of
elevation contour lines to
show the height and shape of
the Earth's surface above the
reference surface which is
usually the sea level
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

8. Isopach Map- It is a map

used to delineate the
variations in thickness
within a layer, tubular unit
or stratum. Represents
lines that connect a
formation or a layer with
the same thickness
without structural needed.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

9. Photogeological Map- A
compilation of interpretations
of a series of aerial
photographs, including
annotations of geologic
features. It is the result of
aerial photographs adapted to
the actual condition on the
field.
 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS

10. Hydrogeological Map- It

depicts the distribution of
various water-bearing levels
and their complexes, the
sources and their flow, wells,
boreholes, sinkholes, the roof or
base of water-bearing strata,
and the depth at which
underground waters are found
and their chemical composition.
 THE MATERIALS NEEDED IN GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
Base Map - Used to show an overview of the area that will be
mapped.
Compass and clinometer - Used to measure the strike and dip
from rock and geological structure
Stationery and field notebook - Used to record and describe the
characteristics of rocks structure found at the observation
location.

Hammer and chisel - Used to take rock samples

Hand lens- Used to observe the characteristics of rock that
cannot be seen with the eye directly, such as the grain size.
Gauge-Used to determine the length of an outcrop or structure.
GPS-Used to determine the outcrop location.
 STUDY OF
STRUCTURES
FOLDS, FAULTS AND JOINTS-THEIR
BEARING ON ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION
FOLDS
Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses
crumple into folds. They do not return to their original
shape.
types of folds
Monocline - It is a simple bend in the rock
layers so that they are no longer
horizontal.

Anticline - it is a fold that arches upward.

The rocks dip away from the center of the
fold. When a rock arch upward to form a
circular structure, the structure is called a
dome.
types of folds
Syncline - is a fold that bends downward.
When rocks bend downward in a circular
structure, the structure is called a basin.

Plunging Folds-The axial plane divides a

fold as symmetrically as possible. The line
formed by the intersection of the axial
plane with the beds define the fold axis.
The axis of a fold can be Made with
horizontal. If the axis is not horizontal, the
structure is said to be a plunging fold. The
plunge of a fold can be described as the
angle a fold axis makes with horizontal
surface.
 FOLDS CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY THEIR GEOMETRY WITH RESPECT TO
THEIR AXIAL PLANE :
Symmetrical Folds - axial plane is vertical and beds dip at approximately the same angle, but in
opposite directions, on either side of the plane.
Asymmetrical Folds - axial planes are inclined and one limb of the fold dips more steeply than the
opposite limb, but still in opposite directions.
Overturned Folds - axial plane is inclined and both limbs of the fold dip in the same direction.

In general, the greater asymmetry in the fold, the more intense the deformation
JOINTS
A joint is a crack in a
rock along which no
appreciable
movement has
occurred. Strata on
the side of the joint
align with strata on
the other side.
JOINTS
Joints can form as a result of expansion and contraction of rocks.
Expansion can occur if erosion strips away the overlying rocks to exhumed
once deeply buried rocks. Release of confining pressure causes the
exhumed rock to expand and fracture, thereby producing joints.

Joints aid in weathering by providing channels where water and air can
reach deep into the formation.
FAULT
A fault is a plane of
dislocation where rocks
on one side of the fault
have moved relative to
rocks on the other side.
Strata on one side of the
fault plane are typically
offset from strata on the
opposite side.
FAULT
Faults can form in response to any one of the three types of forces;
compression, tension and shear. The type of fault produced, however,
depends on the type of force exerted.

A fault plane divides a rock into two blocks. One block is referred to as the
hanging wall, the other as the footwall. The hanging wall is the block of
rock above an inclined fault plane. The block of rock below an inclined
fault plane constitutes the footwall
types of faults
Normal Fault - the fault is defined as a
normal fault when the hanging wall slips
downward relative to the footwall. These
result from tensional forces and typically
form rift valleys. The down-faulted block
in a rift valley is called a graben while the
uplifted block is referred to as a horst.

Reverse Fault – compressional forces

typically push the hanging wall upward
relative to the footwall, producing reverse
faults.
types of faults
Thrust Fault - a reverse fault in which the
dip of the fault plane is so small as to be
almost horizontal. In thrust faults, the
hanging wall moves almost horizontally
over the footwall.

Strike-slip or Transverse Fault - this fault

is typically produced by shear forces
when one block slips horizontally past
another. In other words, slippage is
parallel to the strike of the fault.
types of faults
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF Strike-slip or Transverse Fault :
Left Lateral Strike-slip Fault - when one left block moves in forward direction and right
block in the backward direction then that type of fault is known as a left-lateral strike-slip
fault.
Right Lateral Strike- slip Fault - when one right block moves in forward direction and left
block in the backward direction then that type of fault is known as a right- lateral strike-slip
fault.
Oblique-slip Fault- occurs where there is both a strike-slip and dip-
slip component to
SPECIAL TYPES OF FAULTS
Two separate normal faults dipping
toward each other create a down thrown
block known as graben. Normal faults
dipping away from each other create an up
thrown block called a horst.

The largest faults -in a faulted

area, it was called master faults,
associated with minor faults that
may be antithetic or synthetic.
An antithetic fault dips toward
the master fault, while the
synthetic fault dips in the same
direction as the master fault.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FOLDS, FAULTS
AND JOINTS IN ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION
FOLDS
LOCATION OF TUNNELS
Folded rocks are greatly strained, their removal for tunneling can cause rock
explosions
Along crests of folds, the rocks are in tension, therefore highly unstable
Along the troughs, rocks are highly compressed, hence tough, offer greater
resistance to excavation for tunneling
Tunneling can be done along the limbs

QUARRYING
(Should be done along limbs) Better quality of rocks available
Fractures associated with crests and troughs are absent along the limbs
Seepage problems along the crests and troughs can be avoided
GROUNDWATER OCCURENCE
Synclines often furnish excellent conditions to tap ground water
Artesian wells and springs originate from synclines
Fractures present in folded strata act as channels for ground water movement

LAYING ROADS AND RAILWAY TRACKS ALONG HILL

SLOPES
Ground stability depends on the mutual relation of the dip of the beds and the
slope of the cutting
If the surface slope and the dip are in opposite directions, the ground is stable
If the surface slope and the dip collide, the ground is unstable
OIL, GAS, AND ORE DEPOSIT

Oil and gas deposits are often associated with anticlines

Suitable cap rocks, are also an essential requirement
Crests of folds offer convenient places for the occurrence of ore deposits
 JOINTS
LOCATION OF DAMS AND RESERVOIRS
Too many joints in a site, will render it unsuitable for construction of dams
They act as avenues for serious leakage of water
Upstream dipping joints are less harmful

OCCURENCE OF LANDSLIDES
Landslides take place, when the surface slope of the hills and the dip of the
beds are in the same direction
Joints facilitate the heavy percolation of water
This water comes in contact with clayey material below the ground, producing
fine lubricating materials, which causes the slipping of over lying rocks
 QUARRYING
Depending on conditions, joints can play a helpful or harmful role in quarrying
Joints cut in situ rocks, which can be easily extracted, without the use of
explosives
Too many joints, on the other hand, render quarrying useless, due to excessive
decay of rocks

TUNNELING
Joints can severely hamper the strength of rocks
They may cause rocks to fall from the roof of the tunnel
Joints can cause the ground to be saturated with water, decreasing the strength of
the rocks
They may act as sites for the development of solution cavities in limestone
terrain
LOCATION OF RESERVOIR

Faults cause leakage of water, if present in the reservoir basin

Downstream dipping faults cause excess uplift pressure
Fault zone occurring in upstream of the river, leads to erosion and accelerated the
reservoir silting
FAULTS
LOCATION OF TUNNELS
Fault zones, being heavily fractured, makes tunneling unstable
Ground water associated problems are likely to occur
Renewed faulting can lead to ground displacement

QUARRYING
Quarrying in fault zones produce inferior materials, quantitatively and
qualitatively

ROADS AND RAILWAY TRACKS ALONG SLOPES

Fault zones are highly undesirable for construction of roads and railway, due to
the possibility of landslides
GROUND WATER OCCURENCE

Fault zones, being heavily fractured, provides space for storage of ground
water and permits their movement

ORE MINERALS
Fault zones are often rich in minerals
They favor different process that eventually lead to mineral formation
THANK
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