Appendix E

CFD Assignments and Guideline

for CFD Project
A sample of three assignments and a guideline for a CFD project clarifying the aim and
objectives are described in this appendix. Students who do not have their own project topics
are welcome to select one from the project topics (CFD Projects A–C) exemplified herein.

ASSIGNMENT 1
Background and Aim
The backward-facing step is commonly used as a benchmark for validating numerous flow
characteristics, including flow recirculation and reattachment, as well as for testing of
numerical models and methods. This problem has numerous applications in industry, such
as for HVAC, a combustion chamber, etc. The aims of this problem are
1. To learn the process of creating and exporting a mesh by using any available mesh-generation
software packages. For this assignment, the mesh generator GAMBIT is employed.
2. To learn how to set suitable boundary conditions and numerical models using any avail-
able CFD software packages. ANSYS-FLUENT is used to solve the flow problem in this
assignment.
3. To explore the post-processing facilities of the CFD code to analyze the numerical results.
4. To formulate concise professional reports.

Problem Description
The student is required to compute laminar flows through a backward-facing step as detailed
below. The coordinates given for the geometry are normalized against the characteristic length
scale (see Figure E.1). For the case of the backward-facing step, the characteristic length scale
is the step height (in this case, a length of unity is assumed). The normalized fluid properties
at the velocity inlet are given as

l Inlet velocity: ux ¼ 1 and uy ¼ 0

l Fluid properties: density, r ¼ 1, dynamic viscosity, m ¼ 1/Re, where Re is the Reynolds
number
The outlet boundary is defined as an outflow condition, while the no-slip condition is
invoked for the rest of the computational walls. Turbulence is ignored and no heat transfer
exists within the system. It is noted that the dimensions of the computational domain may
need to be altered to ensure that the flow is sufficiently developed at the outlet boundary.

407
408 APPENDIX E

FIGURE E.1 A schematic illustration of two-dimensional geometry of a backward-facing step.

Instructions
1. Initiate GAMBIT to create a mesh for the backward-facing step. Assign appropriate
boundary conditions to the computational domain. Structured mesh is preferred, but
the user may alternatively generate the geometry with an unstructured mesh. Ensure
that proper mesh quality is achieved. Provide explanations for areas that require
further mesh refinement. Export the two-dimensional mesh to ANSYS-FLUENT,
Version 6.
2. Using ANSYS-FLUENT, solve the simulation to obtain the velocity and pressure contours
and the velocity vectors for Re ¼ 100. Ensure that the flow is fully developed (ensuring no
flow reversal) or is close to developed at the outlet boundary. Discuss any observed flow
characteristics using the physical parameters.
3. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for other meshes of varying densities. Use the same flow settings for
Re ¼ 100 to determine the sensitivity of the mesh to the reattachment point of the recir-
culation zone. Plot a graph relating the mesh size against the reattachment location,
highlighting the most economical mesh for numerical computations. (Hint: When grid
independence is achieved, the reattachment point will not vary with increasing mesh
density.)
4. Using the mesh determined from Step 3, perform simulations for Reynolds numbers of 50,
150, and 200. Compile your results and create a graph illustrating the relationship between
the Reynolds numbers and reattachment points. Explain the phenomenon and provide
your own conclusions.

ASSIGNMENT 2
Background and Aim
One common CFD application is the study of flows over external structures. In the automotive
industry, it is important to determine the aerodynamic effects of the spacing between adjacent
motor vehicles. The Ahmed model is often used in experiments as a representation of the
motor vehicle due to its simple geometry and the ease of varying a number of important
parameters. The aims of simulating these models are

1. To create a CFD simulation of a single Ahmed model and extract meaningful data.
2. To obtain CFD simulations as well as study the effects of spacing between two Ahmed
models.
 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 409

3. To gain an understanding on the model requirements for turbulent flow and the importance
of the distribution of yþ values.
4. To better understand boundary-layer flows.
5. To assess the computational results against available published experimental data.

Problem Description
Single-Car Configuration
The geometry of a typical Ahmed configuration is shown in Figure E.2. Students are required
to develop a model simulation of a single two-dimensional Ahmed configuration model.
The coordinates for the Ahmed model are given as

x y
0.94400 0.00000
0.00000 0.00000
1.04400 0.10000
0.00000 0.17700
1.04400 0.18800
0.94400 0.28800
0.19226 0.28800

Note that the characteristic length (taken as the length of the vehicle) of the Ahmed
configuration is not equivalent to unity. Consideration must be taken into account when
normalizing the Reynolds number and the spacing between adjacent vehicles.
Simulations are to be performed in air. The outer domain for the single-model case should
be constructed according to the Cartesian coordinates below, which should allow any wakes
and vortices to be properly resolved within the computational domain.

x y
9.39600 0.05000
9.39600 4.12600
19.83600 0.05000
19.83600 4.12600

FIGURE E.2 A two-dimensional geometry of an Ahmed model.

410 APPENDIX E

At the inlet, the velocity should be set according to the Reynolds number (with respect to
the car length) of 2.3  106. The flow turbulence intensity is assumed to be 1.8%.

Instructions
1. Students are required to generate another mesh for a second vehicle trailing the one cre-
ated above. (Hint: The domain may need to be purposefully extended to accommodate the
additional vehicle.)
2. Appropriate meshing should be employed, preferably similar to above. The same meshing
methods and boundary conditions used in the previous section should be used herein.
3. Vary the distance between the trailing and leading vehicles. Formulate at least three addi-
tional cases. Discuss the flow characteristics and compare the drag and lift coefficients for
both the lead and the rear car models (Figures E.3 and E.4).
4. Compare the drag and lift coefficients against experimental results (Figures E.3 and E.4).
5. Discuss the flow physics obtained from the predicted drag and lift coefficients.

Drafting Configuration
Instructions
1. Generate a mesh of sufficient quality (keeping in mind the numerical considerations of
aspect ratios and grid skewness). Ensure mesh independence is reached. (Hint: Use
two or three different types of mesh densities.)
2. Students must apply the knowledge gained from tutorials and the previous assignment to
determine suitable boundary conditions. (Note: Simulations can be performed by allow-
ing the floor to travel in the same speed as the air.)
3. Discuss the importance of yþ values in turbulent flows. Students must ensure that accept-
able values are achieved. If otherwise, provide an explanation.

FIGURE E.3 Drag coefficient for a single Ahmed model and two Ahmed models at different vehi-
cle spacing. (From Watkins and Vino, 2004)
 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 411

FIGURE E.4 Lift coefficient for a single Ahmed model and two Ahmed models at different vehicle
spacing. (From Watkins and Vino, 2004)

ASSIGNMENT 3
Background and Aim
CFD has the ability to model fluid flows coupled with heat transfer. The thermal and
hydrodynamic behavior of fluid within a channel has long been an established area of
research. CFD simulations can provide important insights into flow behavior and heat transfer
to improve the heat transfer within a complex channel geometry having a wave-shaped wall
(see Figure E.5), which is increasingly being explored in industrial heat exchangers. The aims
of this assignment are

1. To create a wavy channel consisting of a sufficient number of complete waves to provide

developed flow conditions.
2. To create a wavy channel segment using the periodic boundary conditions.
3. To investigate the effect of different turbulence models and wall functions on the solution.
4. To implement a constant surface temperature as well as a constant surface heat flux on the
wavy wall and to determine the relationship between the Reynolds number and the thermal
properties.
5. To compare and discuss simulation results with experimental results.

Problem Description
The channel consists of a repeated section consisting of a straight wall at the top and a sine-
wave-shaped wall at the bottom.
412 APPENDIX E

FIGURE E.5 A section of the wavy channel.

The coordinates for the geometry are given as

0 0
0.25 0.1
0.5 0
0.75 0.1
1 0
1 0
0 1
1 1

The flow properties of the air are

l Mass flow rate: m_ ¼ 0.816 kg/s

l Density: r ¼ 1 kg/m3
l Dynamic viscosity: m ¼ 0.0001 kg/ms
l Bulk fluid temperature: Tb ¼ 300 K

Other thermal fluid properties are set as default.

The flow is initialized according to

l X velocity ¼ 0.816 m/s

l Turbulence kinetic energy ¼ 1 m2/s2
l Turbulence dissipation rate ¼ 1  105 m2/s3

Enhanced wall treatment is applied for all turbulence models (suitable yþ values are
adjusted accordingly as discussed in Chapter 6).
 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 413

Instructions
1. Create a channel consisting of a sufficient number of the sections given above to provide
developed flow conditions. (Hint: approximately 12 sections.)
2. Compare the normalized axial velocity at the crest and the trough of the full model where
the flow has become fully developed with the experimental results.
3. Create a section as described above using periodic boundary conditions (see Chapter 7).
4. Compare the normalized axial velocity at the crest (x ¼ 0.25) and the trough (x ¼ 0.75) of
the periodic model with the experimental results. Discuss the relationship between the full
model, periodic model, and experimental results.
5. Using the periodic model, investigate the accuracy of using the standard k-e, RNG, and
realizable turbulence models and compare them against the experimental results. Discuss
which turbulence model is the most aptly suited for such a complex configuration.
6. Implement a constant wall temperature of 500 K on the wavy wall surface for a full
model and discuss the thermal characteristics. Vary the flow to provide Reynolds numbers
of 10,000 and 5,400. Compare and discuss the effect of changing the flow rate.
7. Implement a constant wall heat flux of 1000 W/m2 on the wavy wall surface for a full
model and discuss the thermal characteristics. Use only the initial Reynolds number.
8. Generate other results of interest: velocity, turbulence parameters, temperature distribu-
tion (wall and fluid), total heat transfer, and Nusselt number.

PROJECT GUIDELINE
Aim
The aim of the CFD project is to provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their
understanding of the fundamentals and use of CFD software as well as to introduce them
to the numerous applications within the software. Students are allowed to freely determine
any topic of interest. It may be desirable that the intended CFD project topic coincide with
the undertaking of the student’s final year project, keeping in mind the many constraints
and the complexity of the flow problem to be simulated. Students are therefore strongly
encouraged to consult and discuss the project proposal with the lecturer/instructor before
embarking on the next stage of their numerical study.

Objectives
The following abilities should be demonstrated and explained in the project report:

1. The ability to use the commercial CFD software packages for

l Mesh generation and grid quality.
l Defining the settings of a flow problem, i.e., boundary conditions and solver settings.
l Selecting appropriate CFD models, i.e., turbulence models, heat transfer, or other types
of simulation.
2. The ability to use CFD as a tool for engineering design in
l Reducing drag or increasing lift for flow over geometries, e.g., car bodies or airfoils.
l Increasing heat transfer for cooling of a car engine, or reducing heat transfer to prevent
heat loss.
l Creating desired flow control, i.e., the ability to cause flow to move within a desired
region.
414 APPENDIX E

3. The ability to apply CFD knowledge to analyze numerical results:

l Discussions of the flow patterns and behaviors (e.g., wake flow, flow separation,
boundary-layer and convective effects).
l Discussions of the accuracy of the CFD solution with regard to mesh quality, flow
models chosen, and boundary/domain setting.
l Assumptions made on the actual model to allow for modeling simplifications to the
original geometry.

Note: Not all the items listed above are applicable to all types of CFD problems. Students should
consult with lecturers or tutors concerning the above, as well as for ascertaining the suitability of
the project. A brief project proposal outlining the aims and scope of the project, problem
description, and objectives of the project should be prepared and submitted to the lecturers/
tutors; the proposal will account for 5% of the project grade.
Examples of past CFD project topics:

l Effect of vehicle spacing on vehicles in convoy

l CFD analysis of the wing-in-ground effect
l Investigation of the effect of winglet design on lift and drag performance
l CFD simulation of flow over a bicycle helmet
l Study of the reduction of aerodynamic drag on a car-caravan combination
l Turbulent flow analysis over two two-dimensional wings of variable horizontal
separation
l Investigation of the flow field in areas of different hydro power plants
l Modeling of a car air intake system and comparison of different designs
l Numerical investigation of trailing-edge flows
l Comparison of Fowler flap systems using CFD

EXAMPLE—CFD PROJECT PROPOSAL PREPARED

BY THE STUDENT
Introduction
Airfoil design plays a pivotal role in wing and control surface performance in aerospace
engineering. Because wind-tunnel testing can be time consuming and expensive, CFD provides
an attractive alternative. Modeling of flow over an airfoil is an important CFD problem.
Among the many airfoil design features, the flap (Figure E.6), which when deployed increases
the camber of the wing to give increased lift (and drag), is utilized during take-off and landing
in most aircraft as a lift- (and drag-) enhancing device (Figure E.7).

Plain
FIGURE E.6 Plain flap.
 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 415

FIGURE E.7 Lift curve slope.

Scope
The project will focus on the aerodynamic characteristics of a two-dimensional NACA 23012
airfoil with a 20% scaled NACA 23012 plain flap. The airfoil will be modelled at 0 angle of
attack with flap settings of 0 , 10 , 20 , 30 , and 40 . A Reynolds number of 1,400,000 helps
in the study of the turbulent characteristics of the combo. The lift and drag coefficients and
flow separation will be determined using the standard, RNG k-e and realizable k-e turbulence
models to assess the most appropriate model to be applied.
Results will be validated against benchmark experimental data of Carl Wenzinger
(Wenzinger, 1937, Pressure distribution over an NACA 23012 airfoil with an NACA
23012 external-airfoil flap. NACA Report No. 614).

Objectives
l Create a quality mesh around the airfoil/flap.
l Model the air flow around the airfoil/flap at Re ¼ 1,400,000 and SSL conditions with flap
settings varying from 0 to 40 using a standard k-e turbulence model.
l Measure the lift and drag coefficient and pressure and velocity distribution of the
airfoil/flap.
l Repeat with RNG k-e and realizable k-e turbulence models.
l Compare and discuss the results of the three turbulence models.
l Evaluate the accuracy of the results against experimental data.

OTHER TOPICS FOR CFD PROJECTS

CFD Project A: CFD Simulation of Turbulent Flow
over a Backward-Facing Step
Background
The backward-facing step is commonly used as a benchmark for validation of numerous flow
characteristics, including turbulence model, multi-phase flows, and fundamental numerical
methods. This model also has applications in industry, such as for combustion and HVAC.
416 APPENDIX E

Objectives
The aims of this simulation are to
1. Create a backward-facing step simulation appropriate for turbulence modeling.
2. Determine the effects of different meshing schemes.
3. Simulate turbulent flow and compare it with the benchmark data.
4. Determine the effects of different turbulence models.
5. Understand the relevant flow characteristics.
6. Prepare a concise and well-written professional report.

Problem Description
Dry air at 27 C flows through a two-dimensional duct with a backward-facing step at a Reynolds
number Reh ¼ 5100, based on the step height, h. The dimensions of this flow configuration are
shown in Figure E.8. “No-slip” conditions are applied at the walls, and it can be assumed they
are perfectly smooth (i.e., roughness height ¼ 0 m). The turbulence intensity of the incoming
flow can be assumed to be 0.01% and thermal interaction between the walls and the fluid is
assumed to be adiabatic (i.e., no heat transfer). For the purpose of this assignment, it is
expected that no vortex shedding will occur (i.e., steady-state analysis). From extremely
accurate direct numerical simulations (DNSs) it has been determined that re-attachment of the
separated boundary layer occurs on the bottom wall at x ¼ 16.28 h.

Required Discussions
1. Compare the following meshing schemes: (a) uniform structured quadrilateral mesh; (b)
non-uniform structured quadrilateral mesh with mesh refinement in appropriate regions
(with similar number of cells); and (c) unstructured triangular mesh with refinement in
appropriate regions (with similar number of cells). Discuss the differences and the neces-
sity of mesh refinement.
2. Using the best mesh determined from (1), run the case using appropriate settings for (a) a
standard k-« turbulence model and (b) a realizable k-« turbulence model. Determine
which model gives the better prediction. Discuss the differences between the k-e models,
referring to their characteristic equations.
3. Using the best model determined from (1) and (2), replace the dry air with ethylene glycol
at 37 C flowing at the same Reynolds number (Reh ¼ 5100). Discuss any similarities to, or
differences from, the dry air simulation.
4. Discuss the relevant flow characteristics of the simulation.

FIGURE E.8 Dry air at 27 C flow configuration.

 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 417

CFD Project B: CFD Simulation of Pickup Trucks

with Open/Closed Beds
Background
CFD has been a vital tool in studying vehicle aerodynamics. These simulations aim to provide
a better understanding of flow behavior over complex geometries as well as give insights into
methods of increasing vehicle efficiency.

Objectives
The aims of this simulation are to

1. Create two-dimensional models of a pickup truck with the bed open and closed.
2. Create a mesh of sufficient quality to achieve grid independence.
3. Simulate turbulent flow and compare with benchmark data.
4. Understand and discuss the relevant flow characteristics, such as flow velocity and pres-
sure, to design parameters, such as drag and lift forces.
5. Create a trailing pickup truck and investigate the effect of different distances on flow
characteristics.
6. Prepare a concise and well-written report.

Problem Description
A truck, as shown in Figure E.9 (dimensions provided in Addendum) is to be modeled (with
tailgate closed). The moving truck is simulated traveling at a Reynolds number of 3.3  106
(based on the truck length). The standard k-e turbulence model and standard wall functions are
employed. Students are to create a sufficiently large domain to capture the generated wake.
The inlet should have a turbulence intensity of 2% and the lower boundary (parallel to the
x-axis) should be set to a non-moving smooth wall so as to simulate wind-tunnel
conditions. The system is assumed to be adiabatic and time-independent. For a single
pickup truck with a closed tailgate, the drag coefficient was found to be 0.44.

Required Discussions
1. Determine appropriate boundary-layer settings to provide a mesh of sufficient quality for
this simulation, including calculations of the first-layer thickness for a standard wall
model turbulence case.
2. Compare the simulation drag coefficient with the benchmark data to determine mesh
independence.

FIGURE E.9 Simulation of a moving truck traveling at a Reynolds number of 3.3  106.
418 APPENDIX E

3. Compare the flow characteristics of a single truck with the tailgate open with one with the
tailgate closed to determine if tailgate position has an effect on the overall drag of the
vehicle. Discuss.
4. Compare the effect of adding a trailing truck of variable distance (recommended you do
not exceed 3 lengths of the truck) on both the leading and trailing vehicles. You may set
either truck to have an open or closed tailgate for this investigation. Plot and compare on a
graph the drag and lift coefficients for both trucks against different separation lengths.
Discuss.

Note: You may need to extend the length of the domain to incorporate the extra truck.

Addendum
Coordinates for the pickup truck with closed tailgate:
X Y
0 0.354
0 0.224
0.0215 0.246
0.0215 0.354
0.045 0.199
0.4226 0.246
0.4226 0.354
0.4264 0.38
0.4504 0.432
0.5458 0.432
0.5981 0.419
0.6438 0.402
0.6795 0.38
0.7185 0.35
0.7743 0.346
0.8284 0.337
0.8792 0.328
0.9263 0.199
0.9263 0.199
0.9267 0.315
0.935 0.229
0.9518 0.246
0.966 0.307
0.9771 0.285
0.9798 0.255
1 0.26
1 0.281
 CFD Assignments and Guideline for CFD Project 419

CFD Project C: Investigation of Cooling Electronic

Components within a Computer
Background
CFD is a powerful tool for optimizing applications involving heat transfer. The cooling of
electronic components within a computer has recently become an important issue, particularly
because increased processing power tends to generate more heat, which may cause hardware
damage or failure.

Objectives
The aims of this simulation are to

1. Prepare a suitable mesh of sufficient quality to analyze the thermal and flow characteris-
tics of air cooling within a computer.
2. Understand the requirements for cooling electronic components within the system.
3. Design the system by placing the components in optimal positions to allow operation
within the safety range through understanding of the thermal and flow behavior.
4. Determine the best positions for the electronic components.

Problem Description
A system case is shown in Figure E.10 with the dimensions listed in millimeters. There
are two exhaust openings (50 mm wide) and one air intake (80 mm wide). Air is to enter
the system at a temperature of 20 C at a rate of 0.1 m3/s with a turbulence intensity of
5%. The walls of the system are assumed to be adiabatic and smooth. Within the
system, add (a) 1 processor with dimensions 25 mm  25 mm with a heat output of
800 W/m2; (b) three RAM modules with dimensions 135 mm  30 mm with a heat output

FIGURE E.10 Simulation of a system case involving heat transfer.

420 APPENDIX E

of 60 W/m2; and (c) three other components of dimensions 100 mm  50 mm with a heat
output of 150 W/m2 per module. Use the standard k-e turbulence model to simulate the
flow turbulence per component.

Required Discussions
Arrange the components listed above within the system casing with the given boundary
conditions in at least three different designs. In addition, analyze the fluid flow and
thermal characteristics to determine the optimal locations for your components, bearing in
mind that no component surface should exceed 80 C.