Fire:

Fire or combustion is a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen and heat is
released. There are 3- conditions essential for a fire: 1) fuel, 2) oxygen, and 3) heat. These 3-conditions
are often represented as the fire triangle.

Heat
Fig: The Fire Triangle

If anyone of the conditions is missing, fire does not occur; if anyone of them is removed, fire is
extinguished. Normally, the heat required is initially supplied by an external source and then provided
by the combustion process itself. The amount of heat needed to cause ignition depends on the form
of the substance. A gas or a vapor may be ignited by a spark or small flame, while a solid may require
a more intense heat source. Ignition of a combustible gas or vapor may occur in two ways: first, the
energy for ignition is supplied by a local source such as a spark or a small flame at a point within the
mixture. Second, the bulk gas mixture is heated up to its ignition temperature.

Bulk vapor
heated to
auto-
ignition
temp.

spark a)
b)
Fig: Ignition of a flammable mixture: a) local ignition, and b) bulk gas ignition

Classification of Fire (NFPA 10:2002):

Class A: Fires in ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.
Class B: Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, oils, greases, tars, oil-based paints, solvents,
lacquers, alcohols and flammable gases.
Class C: Fires that involve energized electrical equipment.
Class D: Fires in combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium and
potassium.
Class K: Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media (vegetable or animal oils
and fats).
Flammability and Flammability Limits:
Combustion of a flammable gas-air mixture occurs if the composition of the mixture lies in the
flammable range and the conditions exist for ignition (i.e. either by bulk gas temperature rise or by
local ignition).
A flammable gas burns in air only over a limited range of composition. Below a certain concentration
of the flammable gas, the lower flammability limit (LFL), the mixture is too lean; while above a certain
concentration, the upper flammability limit (UFL), it is too rich. The concentrations between these
limits constitute the flammable range. The LFLs and UFLs are also sometimes called, respectively, the
LELs and UELs.
Note: In general, most flammable mixtures correspond approximately, but not exactly, to the
stoichiometric mixture for combustion. It is frequently found that the concentrations at the LFLs and
UFLs are roughly one-half and twice that of the stoichiometric mixture, respectively, for HCs.
Factors Affecting Flammability Limits:
Flammability limits are affected by:
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Direction of flame propagation
 Gravitational field
 Surroundings
 Other conditions.
Normal variations of atmospheric pressure do not have any appreciable effect on flammability limits.
The effect of larger pressure changes is not simple or uniform, but specific to each mixture. A decrease
in pressure below atmospheric can narrow the flammable range by raising the LFL and reducing the
UFL until the two limits coincide and the mixture becomes no flammable. Conversely, an increase in
the pressure above atmospheric can widen the flammable range by reducing the LFL and raising the
UFL.
Note: However, an increase in pressure does not always widen the flammable range; in some cases it
can narrow it.
An increase in temperature tends to widen the flammable range.
The temperature-flammability limits relations can be written as:
 For C1 to C10 of HC group:
𝐿𝑡 𝑡−25
=1-
𝐿25 1300−25
Lt = LFL at t° C
L25 = LFL at 25° C
T is the temperature.
Also,
𝐿𝑡 0.75( 𝑡−25 )
=1-
𝐿25 ∆𝐻𝑐
‘1∆Hc = Heat of combustion (kcal/mol)
And
𝑈𝑡 0.75( 𝑡−25 )
=1+
𝑈25 ∆𝐻𝑐
Ut = UFL at t°C
U25 = UFL at 25°C

 For mixtures (Le Chatelier’s equation):

L = 1/ ∑𝑛𝑖=0(𝑦𝑖/𝐿𝑖)
L = LFL of air-free fuel
Li = LFL of fuel component i
Yi = concentration of fuel component I (in mole fractions)
And
U = 1/ ∑𝑛𝑖=0(𝑦𝑖/𝑈𝑖)
U = UFL of air-free fuel
Ui = UFL of fuel component i

Ignition Sources:
Some ignition sources on process plants include the following:
Flames:
 The flames of burners in fired heaters and furnaces, including boiler houses.
 The flame at a flare stack.
 Burning operations such as solid waste disposal.
 Dead grass may catch fire by the rays of the sun.
The risk from such activities should be reduced by suitable location and operational control.
Hot Work:
 Hot works such as welding, cutting, and grinding activities, is a potential source of ignition.
It is necessary to exercise close control of hot work by training, supervision, and use of a permit
system.
Hot Surfaces:
Surfaces of plant equipment are frequently hot and some may be potential ignition sources. Hot
surfaces include:
 Hot process equipment
 Distressed machinery, such as pump with a faulty bearing may run hot and this hot spot is a
potential source of ignition.

Hot Particles:
A common hot particle on plants is soot coming from burners or from a flare. It is a particularly
important potential source of ignition on ships.
Friction and Impact:
Impact, friction, and frictional impact can be a source of ignition for a flammable gas-air mixture.
E.g. a falling object can give an incendive spark. Ignition by a falling object is likely to be most serious
in a space that already contains a flammable atmosphere.
Chemical Energy:
There are several forms of chemical energy that may give ignition. They include:
 The thermite reaction, obtained from aluminium smears on rusty steel.
 Reactive, unstable and pyrophoric materials may act as an ignition source by undergoing an
exothermic reaction so that they become hot. The most pyrophoric material is the pyrophoric
iron sulfide. This is formed from the reaction of hydrogen sulfide in crude oil in steel
equipment. If the conditions are dry and warm the scale may glow and act as an ignition
source.
 Catalytic instruments, which measure the temperature rise resulting from combustion of a
flammable gas. Generally these instruments (like flammable gas detectors) are intended to
 operate in hazardous areas and are therefore designed so that they should not act as an
ignition source.
Hot materials and Gases:
They include hot ash, hot used catalyst or hot process material, and hot gases.
Engines:
One very common type of engine used in process plants a diesel engine and it has a a variety
of ignition source such as:
 The hot exhaust gas.
 The induction and exhaust systems, which are designed to avoid detonation but to handle
deflagration.
 Crank cases.
Vehicles:
The vehicles that are contained in a process plant may act as an ignition source. Cases occurred
when the engines of the vehicles were switched off, but they continued to run by drawing in, as fuel,
flammable gas from an enveloping gas cloud.
Therefore, it is necessary to exclude ordinary vehicles from hazardous areas and to ensure that those
that are allowed in cannot constitute an ignition source.
Lightning:
Lightning is a potential ignition source on process plants and it is traditionally very significant
for storage tank fires.
Radio Frequency Transmission:
The possibility exists that RF transmissions from strong sources such as large military
transmitters may act as an ignition source on process plants. The conditions for RF ignition of a
flammable gas are:
 Electromagnetic radiation of sufficient intensity.
 A structure capable of acting as a receiving aerial.
 A mechanism of creating an incendive spark.
Smoking:
Smoking and smoking materials are potential sources of ignition. Ignition may be caused by a cigarette,
cigar, or pipe or by the matches or lighter used to light it. Therefore, prohibition of smoking in
hazardous areas is obvious; although, smoking zones are provided for safe smoking purpose.
Autoignition:
Strictly, ignition of a bulk flammable gas-air mixture by heating the mixture to its AIT is the alternative
to ignition by a local ignition source.

Hazardous Area Classification:

The exclusion of sources of ignition is effected on process plant by a system of HAC.

Fire in Process Plant:

Fires in process plant are a serious hazard to both life and property. Normally, fire occurs as a result
of a leakage or spillage of fluid from the plant. Larger leaks may occur due to the failure of a vessel,
pipe or pump, and smaller ones from flanges, sample and drain points and other small bore
connections. Combustion of material, which has leaked from a plant may take a number of forms. A
leak of gas or liquid may be ignited at the point of issue so that it behaves like a flame on burner. In
some circumstances this flame may be directed like a blow torch at another part of the plant. If the
leak gives rise to a gas or vapor cloud which grows for a period before it is ignited, the resultant effect
may be either a vapor cloud, a flash fire, or a vapor cloud explosion. In a flash fire the gas cloud burns,
but does not explode. A typical flash fire may cause quite extensive damage, particularly to vulnerable
items such as electric cabling, but may leave the main plant equipment relatively unharmed. However,
a flash fire does cause a sudden depletion of oxygen, and this effect can be lethal to personnel.
In addition to fires arising from leakage in general, there are certain characteristic types of fire on
process plant. These include: 1) pump fires, 2) flange fires, 3) lagging fires, 4) duct fires, 5) cable tray
fires, and 6) storage tank fires.
1) Pump Fires:
Pumps tend to leak at the gland or the seal and the leakage frequently ignites causing a fire. A fire
at a pump can do considerable damage. Electrical and instrument cabling is particularly liable to
be damaged by a pump fire. If such cabling is put out of action, the plant may be down for a much
longer period than is required to deal with the fire itself. Pump fires can be protected by taking
measures such as improved pump reliability, an emergency isolation valve or a protected cabling,
etc.
2) Flange Fires:
Pipe flanges tend to leak and sometimes the leakage is ignited so that there is a fire.
3) Lagging Fires:
Lagging is the insulation applied to piping and process equipment.
Lagging in plant equipment frequently becomes impregnated with oils and other liquids. If the
lagging is hot, self-heating or ignition may occur, leading to a lagging fire. It is basically a self-
heating phenomenon.
The most important factor in a lagging fire is the oil itself.
The temperature which can be attained in a lagging depends on geometry and temperature of
underlying equipment. Typical leakage points at which a lagging fire can occur include pumps,
flanged joints, and sample and drain points.
Several precautions can prevent lagging fires. The most obvious is to prevent leakage into the
lagging. This requires not only a high standard of operation and maintenance, but also the action
of knowledgeable personnel. Additional measures include leaving bare known points of leakage
and protecting lagging at critical points with metal collars. Another approach is to use insulating
materials less prone to fire. This type of solution often introduces additional cost.
4) Duct and Cable Fires:
Ducts of various kinds are common in process plants and buildings. They include ducts used for:
1) the conveyance of fluids, 2) extraction and other ventilation, 3) pipes, and 4) electrical cables.
Such ducts may have walls, which are combustible and/or may contain combustible materials. In
ordinary ventilation systems, the duct walls may be plastic. In fume extraction systems,
combustible deposits may build up on the duct walls. Cable and pipe coverings may be
combustible. Other sources of combustible materials include leaks from pipes and debris left in
the duct.
If combustible material in a duct is ignited, fire growth can be rapid, because the heat does not
escape as readily as in an open fire and much of it serves to preheat surfaces further down the
duct, making the fire much more severe and causing combustion of materials, which would not
normally make much contribution to fire.
There are a number of precautions which may be taken against duct fires. Good housekeeping can
reduce the amount of combustible material in the duct. Fire detectors may be provided to give
early warning. Fire stops may be installed to prevent fire spread. The duct may be designed to
allow access for firefighting. Proper working practices may be enforced by the use of a permit to
work system.