Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

Postulates of Einstein’s special theory of relativity

1. Principle of Physical Equivalence – The laws of physics, (both mechanics and

electrodynamics) expressed in the form of mathematical equations have the same form in all
the inertial frames of references. This postulate is the generalization from the wide range of
physical phenomena and declares that the laws of physics are absolute and universal.

2. Constancy of Speed of Light – The speed of light in free space is absolute. It has the
same value in all inertial frames of references. That is, speed of light neither depends on
relative motion between the source and the observer, nor on the direction of the motion. This
law is an experimental fact.

The two postulates taken together have a consequence, that no material particle can have
velocity greater than the velocity of light in free space with whatsoever energy it is accelerated.

Galilean Transformation
The classical theory mainly involves the Galilean Transformation.

v
X’ *P
x

vt

O O’

Geometry of Galilean Transformation at t = 0, O = O’

After time t, S’ travels a distance vt along x.

1. The direct & reverse transformations should be symmetrical.

2. It must be linear in nature.
3. It is not based on Absolute Parameters.
4. Transformation should be Finite in space.
x’ =x – vt
y’ = y
z’ = z
t’ = t

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

where x’, y’, z’ are the coordinates observed from S’ at time t’, whereas x, y, z are the coordinates
observed for the same point from frame S.
Differentiating (1.1.a)
𝑉𝑥′ = 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑣
𝑉𝑦′ = 𝑉𝑦
𝑉𝑧′ = 𝑉𝑧
Hear we observe the change in velocity in only x direction.
Now differentiating again
𝑎𝑥′ = 𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑦′ = 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑧′ = 𝑎𝑧
By the above equation we find no change in terms of acceleration.

Lorentz Transformation

The equations can be deduced for the moving or stationary frames for uniform relative velocity
with respect to each other.
At Origin
x=y=z=t=0
x’ = y’ = z’ = t’ = 0

For consideration of a spherical surface

x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = 0

x’2 + y’2 + z’2 – c2t’2 = 0

x’2 + y’2 + z’2 – c2t’2 = λ(x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2)

λ(0) =1 for consideration at origin where v = 0,

Hence

x’2 – c2t’2 = x2 – c2t2

For the linear transformation let

x’= 𝛾 (x - vt)

&

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

x = 𝛾 (x’- vt’)

t’ = 𝛾 [t- x(1-1/ γ2)/v]

By these equations we find the Lorentz factor

1
𝛾=
1 − 𝑣2 𝑐 2

Therefore Lorentz transformation for space & time are as follows:

𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ =
1 − 𝑣2 𝑐 2

y’ = y

z’ =z

𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥 𝑐 2
𝑡′ =
1 − 𝑣2 𝑐 2
For the inverse Lorentz transform

𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡′
𝑥=
1 − 𝑣2 𝑐 2

y = y’

z = z’

𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑥′ 𝑐 2
𝑡=
1 − 𝑣2 𝑐 2

By putting the values of x, y, z, t in equation x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2, we finds x’2 + y’2 + z’2 – c2t’2,
which shows the invariance w.r.t. space.

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

Relativistic law of addition of velocities

With the help of Lorentz transformations we can transform the velocity of a particle from one
frame of reference to another frame of reference moving with a constant relative velocity with
respect to it.

Let u be the velocity of a particle in a proper frame of reference S . The components of this
velocity are

dx dy dz
ux  , u y  , uz  …1
dt dt dt

Another frame of reference S  moves with a uniform velocity v along  X direction relative to
frame S . At instant t  , the coordinates of a point  x, y, z  are given by Lorentz transformations
as

x    x  vt 
y  y
z  z …2
 vx 
t    t  2 
 c 

1
Where  
v2
1
c2

Let u  be the velocity of the same particle in frame S  and its components are

dx  dy   dz
u x  , uy  , uz  …3
dt  dt  dt 

Taking differentials of transformation eq…2 and using eq…1, we get

dx    dx  vdt     ux  v  dt …4

dy  dy …5

dz  dz …6

 vdx   vu 
dt     dt  2    1  2x  dt …7
 c   c 

Dividing eqs…4,5 and 6 by eq…7, we get

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

dx  u x  v 
u x   …8
dt   vu x 
1  c 2 
 

dy uy
u y   …9
dt   vu 
 1  2x 
 c 

dz uz
u z   …10
dt   vu 
 1  2x 
 c 

Set of eqs…8,9 and 10 is called as Lorentz transformation of velocities or law of relativity of

velocities. It is clear from eqs…9 and 10 that y and z components of velocity are affected by
the motion in x direction.

Similarly, we can obtain

ux 
dx


u x  v  …11
dt  vu  
1  2x 
 c 

dy u y
uy   …12
dt  vu  
 1  2x 
 c 

dz u z
uz   …13
dt  vu  
 1  2x 
 c 


To check if these transformations are consistent with the principle of relativity, we put ux  c in
eq…8 and u x  c in eq…11

dx   ux  v   c  v 
u x    c
dt   vu x   v 
1  c 2  1  c 
   

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

ux 
dx


u x  v

c  v
c
dt  vu    v 
1  2x  1  c 

 c   

It is clear from the above results that both the observers determine the same value of the
speed of light, as they must.

Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation and explain its importance.

Mass-energy equivalence relation – We know that according to postulates of Einstein’s

special theory of relativity, physical laws remain invariant in all inertial frames of references. So
does Newton’s second law of motion and work-energy theorem. When a particle is subjected
to a constant force, its kinetic energy goes on increasing, to any value classically, but not
relativistic-ally. Because when velocity approaches velocity of light c , work cannot add to its
velocity but it shall add to mass. Thus, mass and energy should be inter-convertible.
According to work-energy theorem:

Change in kinetic energy = work done

 
dEk  F . dx
Where F is the force causing displacement dx in its direction
dEk  Fdx …1

From Newton’s second law of motion

d  mv  dv dm
F m v (Relativistic-ally, m is not constant) …2
dt dt dt

Substituting the value of F from eq…2 in eq…1

 dv dm 
dEk   m  v  dx
 dt dt 

dx dx
dEk  mdv  vdm
dt dt

dEk  mvdv  v2 dm …3

We know that relativistic mass m of a particle with velocity v is given by

mo
m where mo is rest mass of the particle. …4
v2
1 2
c
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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

By squaring and cross multiplying eq…4, we get

m2c2  mo2c2  m2v 2 …5

Differentiating the above eq…5, we get

2mc2 dm  2m2vdv  2v2mdm

c2 dm  mvdv  v2 dm …6

Comparing eq…3 and eq…6, we get

dEk  c 2 dm …7

When force is applied, the body accelerates from rest to velocity v , its mass increases from mo
to m and its kinetic energy increases from 0 to Ek .

By integrating eq…7, we get

Ek m

 dEk   c dm
2

0 mo

Thus, relativistic kinetic energy is given by

Ek  mc 2  moc 2 …8

The total energy E of the body of rest mass mo is given by the sum of kinetic energy Ek and
rest energy mo c 2 , therefore

E  Ek  mo c 2  mc 2  mo c 2  mo c 2

mo c 2
E  mc 2  …9
v2
1 2
c
The above eq…9 is called as Einstein’s mass-energy relation. Since mass and energy are
inter-convertible, their separate conservation laws do not exist but these are governed by a
single law, the law of conservation of mass and energy.

Importance – Entire nuclear energy processes, fission, fusion and other nuclear reactions are
excellent examples of mass-energy relation. Pair production where

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

a photon ( E  2.1MeV ) passing near a heavy nucleus breaks into e  and e  pair and
annihilation, where positron and electron combine to produce photons are other examples of
energy converting into mass and mass converting into energy, respectively. In every chemical
reaction that evolves energy, a certain amount of matter disappears, that is, converted into
energy.

Comparison of relativistic and classical kinetic energies of a moving particle

Also, from eq…8

Ek  mc 2  mo c 2 (Relativistic)
1
mo c 2  v2  2
Ek   mo c  mo c 1  2 
2 2
 mo c 2
v2  c 
1 2
c

Classically,

 v2 
Ek  mo c 2 1  2   mo c
2

 2c 

1
𝐸𝑘 = 2 𝑚0 𝑣 2 is classical expression for kinetic energy.

Relativistic variation of mass with velocity

Relativistic variation of mass with velocity – According to classical mechanics, the mass of
a body remains constant whether at rest or in motion. But according to Einstein’s special
theory of relativity mass varies with velocity.

To determine the velocity dependence of mass, consider two inertial frames S and S  in which
frame S  is moving with a constant velocity v relative to S along
 X direction. Two exactly identical bodies A and B, each of mass m , approach each other
with equal speeds u  (opposite to each other) parallel to x -axis, in frame S  .
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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

Suppose after collision both the bodies A and B coalesce in to one body (in-elastic collision).
Then, according to law of conservation of linear momentum, momentum before collision should
be equal to momentum after collision. Therefore,

mu   mu   2mv …1

0  2mv

v  0 …2

That is, velocity of coalesced body in frame S  will be zero, or it is at rest in S  .

Now, consider the collision process as it appears in frame S . Applying relativistic law of
addition of velocities, velocity u1 of body A and velocity u2 of body B in frame S will be given
by

u  v
u1  …3
uv
1 2
c

u  v
u2  …4
uv
1 2
c

Let us assume that mass of the bodies is variable in frame S and let them be m1 moving with
velocity u1 and m2 moving with velocity u2 . Also, mass of the coalesced body will be  m1  m2 
moving with velocity v . Then, according to principle of conservation of linear momentum,

m1u1  m2u2   m1  m2  v …5

Substituting values of u1 and u2 from eqs…3 and 4 in eq…5, we get

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

   
 u  v   u  v 
m1   m2    m1  m2  v
u v  u v 
 1 2   1 2 
 c   c 

   
 u  v   u  v 

m1   v   m2  v 

 1  u 2v   uv 
1 2 
 c   c 

 u v 
1 2 
m1  c
  …6
m2  1  v 
u
 c2 
From eq…3, we get
2
 
u 2
 u v  1

1  12  1  
  2
c  1  u 2v  c
 c 

 u2  v 2 
1  2  1  2 
u12  c  c 
1 2  …7
c  uv 
1  2 
 c 

Similarly, from eq…4, we get

 u 2  v 2 
1  2 1  2 
u22  c  c 
1 2  …8
c  u v 
1  2 
 c 

Dividing eq…8 by eq…7, we get

 u22   uv 2
1  2  1  2 
 c  c 
 u1   uv 2
2

1  2  1  2 
 c   c 

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

u22  u v 
1 1  2 
c2   c 
…9
u 2  u v 
1  12 1  c 2 
c  

Comparing eq…6 and eq…9, we get

u22
1 2
m1 c

m2 u2
1  12
c

u12 u22
m1 1   m2 1  …10
c2 c2

Since both sides of the eq…10 are independent of each other, they will be equal for every
value of u1 and u2 if both sides are equal to a constant, say mo . That is

u12 u22
m1 1  2  m2 1  2  mo …11
c c

The constant mo is called the rest mass of the body which corresponds to mass of the body at
its zero velocity. Thus,

mo mo
m1  and m2 
u12 u22
1 1
c2 c2

In general, if m be the mass of the body (relativistic mass) when its velocity is v , then

mo 1
m  mo  Where   …12
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c

Eq…12 suggests that mass is not invariant and its value varies with speed of the body. That is,
a body is more massive when moving than at rest. The variation of mass (mass increases with
velocity) is shown in the figure.

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

It is clear from eq…12 that relativistic mass increase is significant only at speeds approaching
v2
that of light. For small values of v , that is, v  c , 2 is negligible compared to 1 so that m  mo
c
. If speed v of the material particle becomes equal to velocity of light c , m becomes infinite,
which is not possible. Hence, it is not possible for a material particle to have velocity equal to
or greater than velocity of light.

Speed of light in a medium moving with a velocity v m by using Einstein’s velocity

addition formula.

Fresnel predicted that ‘light would be dragged along by moving media and new wave velocity
is given by

c  1 
v  vm 1  2 
n  n 

Where c is velocity of light in vacuum, vm is velocity of moving medium and n is refractive index
of the medium.

Let v be the velocity of light relative to the medium which itself is moving with velocity vm and
v ' is the velocity of light in stationary medium.

According to Einstein’s velocity addition formula, the velocity of light in moving medium

v ' vm
v …1
v 'v
1  2m
c

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Physics I Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh Unit V

c 
  vm 
v 
n c
Or since v '  …2
 vm  n
1  nc 
 

1
c  v 
Or v    vm 1  m  …3
n  nc 

Since vm  c and v '  c , using binomial expansion up to first two terms, we get

c  v 
v    vm  1  m  …4
n  nc 

c vm v2
Or v  2  vm  m …5
n n nc

c  1  vm2
Or v  1  2  neglecting …6
n  n  nc

 1 
The factor 1  2  is called as light drag coefficient which was experimentally verified by
 n 
Fizeau with water serving as a moving medium.

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