Original article

Textile Research Journal

81(4) 344–354

The use of warp interlock ! The Author(s) 2010

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fabric inside textile composite DOI: 10.1177/0040517510385170
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protection against ballistic impact

Francois Boussu

Abstract
The actual and near future trend in the composite field is to customize material in response to its application. One of
these solutions may lie in the use of three-dimensional textile structure using different types of high performance yarn.
Focusing on the 3D textile structure literature, different types of classification can be found.1,2 Among these different
kinds of structure, the warp interlock appears to be differently defined like: the 2.5 dimensions fabric, 3 dimensions multi
layers fabric, multi layers interlacing fabrics.3 This paper gives an overview of the different types of the warp interlock to
be defined according to their performance on delamination and impact resistances.

Keywords
Impact behaviour, delamination resistance, energy absorption, fabric reinforcement

showed a brittle mode, resulting in significantly lower

Introduction
Some studies demonstrate that 3D composites have
high ballistic impact damage resistance and low velocity
impact protection.4–6 A higher performance of 3D
structural composites compared to 2D laminates has
also been revealed.7 Taking into account the impact
studies achieved on 3D woven composites,8–11 high per-
formance has been revealed due to their resistance to
delamination.12,13 The 3D angle interlock fabric dis-
plays high strength and damage resistance as a conse-
quence of the interlaced structure of the warp and weft
between the adjacent layers.14
Low velocity impact properties of 3D woven com-
posites are important for their various applications.
This type of loading can occur when tools are dropped
on the surface of a composite or when the material is
impacted by debris, fragments, or projectiles. In a
recent study, two types of 3D woven Basalt/Aramid
hybrid composites with similar fibre volume fraction
and dimension have recently been tested. Post-
mortem photographic analysis indicated that inter-ply
hybrid failed in a layer-by-layer mode, leading to much
larger energy absorption, while intra-ply composite
energy absorption.15 It can also be noticed that 3D tex-
tile structural composites are much tougher between
layers because many reinforcing yarns exist in the
through-thickness direction.
Among all the different analyses and research
done on 3D textile structure, many results tend to
demonstrate a better resistance to delamination of
the composite part. In order to understand well
the delamination process inside a textile reinforce-
ment composite material, a brief review of the mac-
roscopic deformation process of a fabric is given.
Thanks to these different mechanical behaviours
inside the 2D or 3D fabric, modelling of the absorp-
tion mechanism during an impact test can be pro-
posed. Then, taking into account this model, a
ENSAIT, Roubaix, France.
Corresponding author:
Francois Boussu, ENSAIT, 2 Allee Louise et Victor Champier, 59100
Roubaix, France
Email: francois.boussu@ensait.fr
Boussu
target can be designed including some composite
material made with a 3D textile structure with high
performance yarns.
Fabric delamination process
3D textile structures are commonly considered to
enhance the through-the-thickness properties, such as
inter-laminar shear and normal strength, damage pro-
tection and fracture toughness.16 Particularly relevant
in the structural design process is an enhancement of
the delamination resistance. First, a brief description of
the different phenomenon occurring during the fabric
deformation is given.
Macroscopic deformation process of a fabric
Different deformation mechanisms have already been
clustered according to the length scale over which
they occur.17 For the single layer of fabric, two types
of deformation mode can be noticed; the intra ply shear
as in Figure 1 and the intra ply extension as shown in
Figure 2.
For the multi layer fabric, slip between adjacent
layers can be considered in two modes; the inter ply
slip as described in Figure 3 and the inter ply rotation
as shown in Figure 4.
Different kinds of propagation mode, I, II and III,
of the delamination rupture can be represented in
Figure 5.18 Mode I corresponds to inter ply gauge,
Figure 1. Intra ply shear of a single layer fabric.
Figure 2. Intra ply extension of a single layer fabric.
345
mode II can be assumed as an inter ply slip and mode
III tends to be an inter ply rotation of two layers of the
fabric.
Awaiting propagation mode for a ballistic impact
During tests, impact at speeds in excess of 300 m/s at
the beginning of the penetration, a rigid behaviour of
the structure is observed, causing a fracture of trans-
verse shear fibre followed by a flexural behaviour, cre-
ating multiple delamination and breaks in tension
fibres.19–22
The ballistic performance of a flat structure increases
at the same time with the speed of the ‘bending waves’
and the rupture time of plies.23 The simultaneous
increase of these two parameters allows the material
to absorb more energy from damage and deformation
before the complete rupture of the flat structure. This
implies the need to initiate and encourage very early,
during the impact, the spread of delamination in
the plate by a careful choice of materials. They can,
for example, use a low resistance inter laminar shear
containing thick plies formed by resistant or ductile
fibres.
The mechanisms of delamination have been the
subject of many studies investigating the problems
of impact.24–26 Most authors agree that delamina-
tion is, with fibre breaks, the main mechanism for
absorbing energy and they promote the perforation
resistance.
Figure 3. Inter ply slip of a multi layer fabric.
Figure 4. Inter ply rotation of a multi layer fabric.
346 Textile Research Journal 81(4)

In order to improve the perforation resistance, it is
necessary to increase the thickness of the target, in
other words, mass per unit area.27,28
Materials made of ductile fibres in axial compression
(aramid, polyethylene) absorb more energy by defor-
mation and have a higher perforation resistance to
materials reinforced with glass fibres.29–31 It can be
assumed that there is a joint action between the bending
rigidity of plies and properties of fibres break into it,
which governs the propagation of delamination and
therefore energy absorption of the plate.
In addition to the components’ mechanical proper-
ties, the structure and the thickness of fabrics can influ-
ence the perforation resistance of a composite plate.
In the case of a plate-reinforced by aramid fabric, the
speed limit increases with perforation of the thickness.
It therefore appears that the bending rigidity of plies
and especially the thickness of the latter are crucial to
the overall ballistic performance of a plate.
The main absorption mechanisms of energy involved
in such interaction have been identified (Figure 6).
They are:
. broken fibre transverse shear (section A),
. broken fibres tension (section B),
. delamination (section C).
There is a challenge between the rupture mecha-
nisms of fibres and delamination spread, which depends
both on projectile shapes, the characteristics of fracture
components and bending rigidity of plies. Thus, to opti-
mize the impact resistance, we must encourage the
spread of delamination, in the sense that the plate has
to absorb more energy from damage and deformation
of the fibres before the complete failure of the material.
Therefore it is necessary to decrease the inter-laminar
shear resistance of the material and increasing the
number of stitching points between plies.

Figure 5. Propagation modes of delamination rupture.

Absorbed
energy

Projectile
direction

Transverse Tensile Delamina-

A B C shear tion

Figure 6. Explanation of delamination due to a ballistic impact, (left) modelling view (right) post mortem analysis of a fired target.
Boussu
Mechanisms of energy absorption
A lot of analytical methods have been experimented
with to predict impact behaviour. One method for the
prediction of ballistic impact behaviour is based on
wave theory and energy balance between the projectile
and the target.
The energy absorption capability of a textile struc-
ture obviously depends on the mechanical properties of
the fibres used (tensile, compression strength and mod-
ulus of fibres, elongation at break, count, density . . .)
but also:
. its woven architecture,
. the number of fabric plies,
. its area density,
. the surface treatments of yarns,
. the projectile shape, mass and impact velocity,
. the projectile impact angle.
The yarn count and filament count are very impor-
tant because they characterize the strength of the yarn.
Indeed, the smaller the count, the higher the tensile
strength is. Obviously, as the yarn or filament is
stronger, the price goes up. This comes from the fact
that it is more complicated to produce finer filaments or
yarns.
An experimental study32 has shown that the amount
of energy absorbed by a fabric is quantitatively differ-
ent according to the projectiles used. Curves in Figure 7
show similar trends as the energy absorbed increases up
to a critical impact velocity before decreasing.
Pictures of the fabrics impacted have been taken in
order to assess yarn pull-out. They revealed that fabrics
impacted by conical projectiles are the least susceptible
to yarn pull-out, which implies that the projectiles are
most capable of slipping through the fabric. This
200
180
160
Energy absorbed by fabric (J)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 100 200
Impact velocity (m/s)
Figure 7. Plot of the energy absorbed by plain woven fabric
versus impact velocity of projectiles.
347
observation is consistent with the Figure 7 which
shows that energy absorbed by the fabric is the lowest
when it is impacted by conical projectiles.
Data:
Area density: 280 g/m2
Yarn count: 1100 dTex
Target area: 120 mm  118 mm
Results:
V50 (hemispherical) ¼ 159 m/s
V50 (flat) ¼ 100 m/s
V50 (ogival) ¼ 76 m/s
V50 (conical) ¼ 58 m/s
In order to understand the energy absorption mech-
anism of the ballistic structures used today, a lot of
analytical studies and numerical modelling of yarns,
fabrics and even composite materials have been carried
out. However, according to the assumptions made and
the parameters taken into account, results are close to
experimental values but are not reproducible.
During the ballistic impact event, there is a transfer
of energy from the projectile to the target. This energy
is then absorbed by the target according to different
mechanisms:33
. compression of the target directly below the projec-
tile and in the surrounding region of the impacted
zone,
. tension and breakage of the yarns in the structure
(deformation),
. shearing of fibres by the projectile and as a result of
this, a plug is formed in front of the projectile face
(energy absorbed transformed into heat energy),
. delamination and matrix breakage (composite),
. inter fibres friction,
. bulge deformation on the back face,
. projectile deformation.
All these mechanisms are controlled by tensile and
Hemispherical
compression strength, fibres modulus, matrix properties,
Flat
the way of arranging fibres within the reinforcement,
Ogival 2.5
inter-laminar shear strength and the projectile properties.
Conical 60°
Interest of using 3D textile structure for
a ballistic impact
All 3D woven textiles have better strength in through-
the-thickness direction, better impact resistance and
smaller delamination area as mention in Zhang.34
300 400 500 600 700 Compared with 2D laminates, 3D woven composites
have the following advantages:
. 3D weaving can produce complicated near-net-shape
structures. This capability greatly reduces the
348 Textile Research Journal 81(4)

material cost and handling time. The integrated

complex shaped structure tends to have better
mechanical properties.
. Through-thickness properties can be adjusted by
controlling the amount of z yarns.
. Z-yarn could arrest the cracks formed during impact
loading, therefore, 3D woven composite has high
ballistic impact damage resistance and low velocity
impact damage resistance. 3D composite will also
have improved post-impact mechanical properties
than that of the 2D laminates.35,36
. 3D woven composites have a higher failure
strain37,38 and mode I fracture toughness than that
of 2D laminates.39
. Woven fabrics usually exhibit good dimensional sta-
bility in the warp and weft directions. It also has
highest yarn packing density and provides higher
out-of-plane strength. Thus it can carry higher sec-
ondary loads and local buckling.40 Figure 8. Orthogonal warp interlock fabric (Wisetexß
. Woven fabrics have a very low shear rigidity that software).
gives a very good formability.12
ultimate strength. The mode I strain energy release
Zhang34 describes two types of 3D weaving technol- rate of orthogonal interlock composites is more than
ogies: angle interlocking weaving and orthogonal weav- ten times higher than that of 2D laminates, whereas the
ing. Angle interlocking weaving can be further divided mode II strain energy release rate shows an increase of
into layer-to-layer and through-the-thickness. Whitney 2–3 times.
et al.41 notice that, compared with angle interlock The failure mode of orthogonal interlock fabric
method, orthogonal weaving generally brings much composite has been examined.46 The through-the-thick-
higher through-the-thickness reinforcements. This ness yarns tend to increase the energy required to prop-
method also allows greater variability to the movement agate an inter-laminar crack in the following ways:
of the shuttles which could lead to structures with much
more complicated cross-sectional shape as mentioned in . the fracture and pull-out of the z-axis fibres,
Shyong and Bing.42 Composites made from 3D orthog- . crack branching and deviating in the vicinity of
onal woven structure and epoxy resin showed superior z-axis fibres as well as in-plane fibres.
mechanical properties to those made from other 3D
woven structures as related by Brandt et al.43,44 Taking into account all this information, the textile
Multilayered composite reinforcements are termed: solution corresponding to our requirements is oriented
to a thick warp interlock fabric made of high perfor-
. orthogonal when Z-yarns go through the whole fabric mance fibres.
between only two columns of weft yarns (Figure 8),
. through-thickness angle interlock when Z-yarns go
through the whole fabric across more than two col-
The main ballistic fibres
umns of weft yarns (Figure 9), The tensile strength and modulus of the ballistic fibres
. angle interlock when Z-yarns connect separate layers are significantly higher and fibre elongation is lower.48
of the fabric (Figure 10). Each high performance ballistic fibre has a certain
unique property because of the polymer used to man-
3D orthogonal interlock fabrics utilize through- ufacture the fibre and the unique spinning process. The
thickness (z-axis) reinforcement in order to enhance tensile properties of these ballistic fibres are determined
the inter-laminar fracture toughness of the composite.45 by their structural characteristics at a molecular orien-
In a recent study, the inter-laminar fracture toughness tation about the spinning direction, and the effective
of carbon/epoxy composites has been experimentally cross-section area occupied by a single chain which is
determined by the use of a Tabbed Double Cantilever related to the degree of chain linearity. High perfor-
Specimen for Mode I analysis46 and an End Notch mance fibres are generally niche products, such as light-
Specimen for Mode II analysis.47 Through-thickness weight composite materials for aircraft, ballistic fibres
yarns reduced the in-plane Young’s modulus and and bullet resistant vest or body armour, protective
Boussu
Figure 9. Through the thickness interlock fabric (Wisetexß software).
Figure 10. Layer to layer interlock fabric (Wisetexß software).
gear for fire officers, and cut or stab resistant articles.49
Yarns of high strength and modulus are now used in
laminated plates or shells for armour applications
where steel and aluminium alloys once
predominated.50 The specific tensile properties are par-
ticularly important where tensile stresses are large, like
the regions of the armour adjacent to the impact
footprint.
A comparison of high performance organic ballistic
fibres is given in Table 1 based on different parameters.
349
Aramid fibres
Aramids are high molecular weight aromatic polyam-
ides which can be spun from organic solvents or from
sulphuric acid, into filaments of extremely high mechan-
ical strength and very high temperature resistance.
Introduced in the early 1970s, the para-aramid fibre
has a rigid, rod-like molecular structure that gives
excellent mechanical properties: high tensile strength-
to-weight, high elongation-to-break, high longitudinal
tensile modulus and good damage protection making
para-aramid fibre efficient in ballistic protection.
Several types of aramid fibres exist, according to the
location of the functional groups on the aromatic cores:
. para-aramid fibres such as KevlarÕ from Dupont
Advanced Fibre Systems and TwaronÕ from
Teijin-aramid.
. meta-aramid fibres such as NomexÕ from Dupont
Advanced Fibre Systems and ConexÕ from Teijin-
aramid.
. Co-polymer of para-aramid fibres such as
TechnoraÕ from Teijin-aramid. These fibres have
high hydrolysis resistance (in comparison to para-
aramids) with high tensile properties.
Polyethylene High Performance and Modulus Fibres
(HPPE and HMPE)
There are only two types of HPPE fibre:
. DyneemaÕ fibres from DSM High Performance
Fibres
. SpectraÕ fibres from Honeywell International, Inc.
High performance polyethylene (HPPE) properties
depend largely on the ultra-drawing step but also on
350 Textile Research Journal 81(4)

Table 1. Ballistic fibre properties

Specific tenacity Tensile strength Specific modulus Tensile modulus Density Elongation at break
cN/Tex Gpa cN/Tex Gpa g/cm3 %

Kevlar 29 2.03 2.90 49 70 1.43 3.6

Kevlar 49 2.08 3.02 78 113 1.45 2.4
Kevlar 119 2.16 3.11 38 55 1.44 4.4
Kevlar 129 2.38 3.45 70 102 1.45 3.3
Kevlar 149 1.68 2.47 115 169 1.47 1.3
Nomex 0.485 0.67 7.5 10 1.38 35
Twaron 2.1 2.92 75 104 1.39 2.5
Technora 2.52 3.50 53 74 1.39 4.4
Dyneema SK60 2.8 2.73 91 89 0.975 3.5
Dyneema SK65 3.1 3.02 97 95 0.975 3.6
Dyneema SK71 3.5 3.41 122 119 0.975 3.7
Dyneema SK75 3.7 3.61 120 117 0.975 3.8
Dyneema SK76 3.69 3.60 121 118 0.975 3.6
Spectra 900 2.52 2.44 74 72 0.97 4
Spectra 1000 3.26 3.16 110 107 0.97 3.2
Spectra 2000 3.5 3.40 124 120 0.97 2.9
Zylon (PBO) 3.7 5.77 180 281 1.56 2.5
S-2 glass 1.89 4.71 88 219 2.49 5.6
E glass 1.41 3.60 69 176 2.55 4.7
Carbon HR 1.94 3.49 133 239 1.8 1.3
Steel 0.11 0.86 27 210 7.85 17
Polyester 0.83 1.15 9 12 1.38 13
Polyamide 66 0.85 0.97 4.5 5 1.14 19

the type of solvent used and the PE polymerization
degree.
The high level of crystallinity and the high degree of
parallel orientation allow obtaining fibres of outstand-
ing mechanical properties that make them ideal in bal-
listic protection:
. high specific tenacity
. high longitudinal modulus (Young modulus)
. low density <1 g/cm3 (floats on water)
. melting point between 145 and 155  C
. high energy absorption
. excellent resistance to water, moisture, most chemi-
cals, UV light and micro-organisms
. good abrasion resistance (cut-resistant)
PBO fibres (p-phenylene benzobisoxazole)
Introduced in 1998 and manufactured by Toyobo Co.
Ltd. under the trade name ZylonTM, tensile strength
and tensile modulus of PBO are higher than all other
fibres (twice the tensile strength of aramid), while its
elongation and density are similar to para-aramid.
The only drawback of this fibre could be its low trans-
verse compressive modulus (3 times lower than that of
Kevlar 49).
However, it has been discovered that this fibre pre-
sents a limited chemical resistance, especially against
hydrolysis leading, at the moment, to a stabilization
work by the company Toyobo.
Glass fibres
According to the applications, different glass fibre
grades are available. For instance, the E-glass fibre is
used as a reinforcement material in load bearing sand-
wich construction. It has good mechanical properties
and environmental resistance, but its competitiveness
comes primarily from its relatively low price. The two
other types of glass reinforcement are S and R-glass:
they have slightly better mechanical properties but their
price is also significantly higher.
In ballistics, S-2 Glass, from AGY is fequently used.
It is the heaviest fibre used in ballistic applications, with
a density of 2.5 g/cm3, but its high tensile strength,
transverse compressive and high elongation at break,
make it a good material for energy absorption.
Boussu 351

7.62 mm

12.7 mm

Figure 11. (left) 7.62 mm cartridge; (right) comparison between 7.62 and 12.7 mm cartridges.

Cartridge
Bullet with
an internal
penetrator

Figure 12. 12.7 mm armour piercing (AP) cartridge.

Figure 14. Final aspect of the target.

Figure 13. Stacking of three layers of angle interlock fabric.

Moreover, the chemical fibre surface treatments used in

its manufacture result in strong mechanical and chem-
ical bonds with the matrix resin, enhancing structural
performance.

Experimental ballistic results on

3D textile fabric
The fibre used as the reinforcement of the anti-ballistic
composite is the HPPE fibre essentially for its high Figure 15. Impacted target with 12.7 mm cartridge.
tenacity and low density.
352
Figure 16. Post mortem analysis of the warp angle interlock fabric.
Figure 17. Delamination of the laminated structure.
Description of high-energy impact ammunition
High-energy impact corresponds to ammunitions of
war weapons such as assault rifles with the Famas
and Kalashnikov rifles (calibre 5.56 AP, 7.62 . . .).
There are also heavier machine guns using a bigger car-
tridge (12.7 mm) disposed on all armoured fighting
vehicles (Figure 11).
Armour-Piercing (AP) ammunitions which consist of
a hardened steel or tungsten-carbide penetrator
enclosed within a softer material, such as copper or
aluminium, are really destructive (Figure 12). They
are used to penetrate hardened armoured targets such
as armour, vehicle armour, concrete, tanks and other
defences, depending on the calibre of the firearms.
These AP projectiles do not deform during
penetration in soft ballistic protections. By using a
one-layer hard armor, an excessively thick composite
material would be needed to stop the AP projectiles.
It is therefore more efficient to add a ceramic strike
face in front of the composite materials panel.
Design of the armour plated protection
The advantage of ceramic backed by composite armors
resides in the high hardness and relatively low density
of the ceramic material in comparison with steel plates
(for the same energy absorption).
Textile Research Journal 81(4)
Indeed, as soon as an AP bullet impacts the hard
armor, the ceramic strike face deforms and splits up
the bullet which greatly decreases the impact energy.
Then, the backing located behind the ceramic plate,
absorbs the energy by deforming the fibrous structure
and stops the fragments.
Ceramic facing element can be a continuous mono-
lithic plate, a plurality of individual square ceramic tile
or otherwise, can be shaped to suit the dimensional
needs of a particular application. The most used cera-
mic types are alumina Al2O3 (r ¼ 3.9 g/cm3), silicone
carbide SiC (r ¼ 3.2 g/cm3) and boron carbide B4C
(r ¼ 2.52 g/cm3).
Different layers of the textile structure are stacked
together to achieve the final backing of the target
(Figure 13). Ceramic tiles of alumina (Al2O3) are
placed in the front of the textile structure to be moulded
and pressed during the composite material process
(Figure 14).
Three targets have been tested with 12.7 mm
armour piercing ammunitions of 43 g weight which cor-
respond to a total energy to absorb of around 8000 J
(Figure 15). With respect to the MIL-PRF-46103-E
norm (aeronautic use only), only one bullet is fired at
the middle of each target with a speed of 610 m/s. None
of the targets failed and a height of 25 mm of the cre-
ated shape-of-cone hole can be measured for one of
these targets. After this first impact, most of the
Boussu
ceramic tiles are still ‘glued’ on the backing which may
lead to a good propagation of the kinetic energy part to
the textile backing.
Comparing this target made with a warp angle inter-
lock fabric with the existing unidirectional laminates
structure, the same bullet stop result is reached but
with a cost of production divided by a minimum of
two and a 10% weight reduction for the former one.
This performance is due to the good delamination resis-
tance of the 3D woven fabric.
In Figure 16, the first two plies of the warp interlock
structure have been used to absorb the impact energy
from the 12.7 mm ammunition and spread it trans-
versely inside the 3D fabric. The last ply partially dam-
aged by the impact plays the role of stopping the bullet.
The delamination area of this ply is quite large with
respect to the size of ballistic impact section.
In comparison with the delamination of the
laminated structure, made of high performance
polyethylene films (Figure 17), the warp interlock
fabric optimizes the results damage of the target
and helps to spread the total energy to absorb in a
wider 3D area. The energy absorption mechanism of
the laminated structure seems to be more localized
inside a conic shape and thus leads to a larger destruc-
tion of the target.
Conclusion
The study of this project, focused on the ballistic
impact with armour piercing ammunition, shows the
capacity of energy absorption of a special 3D warp
interlock fabric. A new fibre arrangement inside the
angle interlock fabric helps to increase the inter ply
slip between the multiple layers. The assumed delami-
nation process of the 3D textile structure tends to be
more localized than the one of the laminates solution.
According to the technical performance, it can be seen
that the 3D woven solution is lighter and more expen-
sive to produce than the existing laminated materials
solution.
However, more investigations are needed to estimate
the incidence phenomenon of each layer on the others.
Thanks to this new knowledge, the design of a new
structure will be carried out to integrate a chain reac-
tion phenomenon of the delamination process which
helps to improve the energy absorption during a ballis-
tic impact.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any fund-
ing agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.
353
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