Basics,Mechanical

Behaviour,Failure of Materials
MODULE 1

MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
VANISHREE T S ,SUMA B T

SJB
I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O LO G Y
MODULE 1
BASIC,MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR FAILURE OF MATERIALS

Engineering material is that part of inanimate matter which is useful to an Engineer in the practice of his profession. Materials dealt with in life sciences and other
materials like food, chemicals, medicines, and explosives are excluded from the purview of engineering materials. Engineering materials can be broadly categorized in
three groups according to their nature and characteristics;

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Metals and alloys ! -! phase transformation

E.g. – Al, Cu, Ag, Au, Steel, Cast Iron, Brass, Bronze, Invar ii) Organic Polymers ! -! micro-structure of single & multi-phase crystals

E.g. – Plastics : Poly Vinyl Chloride, Polyethylene Fibers! : Nylon, Terylene CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Rubber : Natural rubber (Polyisoprene) iii)Ceramics and glasses ! •! Materials can be broadly classified as crystalline and non- crystalline

E.g. – Silica, Soda lime glass, concrete, cement
In addition to the three broad groups, a number of composite materials (mixture of
the above basic groups) are also in vogue
E.g. - Concrete, Metal reinforced plastics, Glass Fibre reinforced plastics, Cermets,
carbon fibre reinforced plastics
Materials exhibit various types of internal structure, which can be studied only at
various levels of observations, aided by the magnification and resolution of the
device employed. The higher the magnification, the finer is the level. Magnification
up to one million times using Transmission Electron Microscope or Field Ion
Microscope is now possible.
Depending on the level, one can classify the internal structure as ;
! i)! Atomic structure (electronic and nuclear structure) ii) Crystal
structure iii)! Grain structure iv) Imperfection structure v)! Phase structure vi)
Macro structure
or amorphous solids. In crystalline solids, the arrangement of atoms is in a
periodically repeating pattern. In amorphous solids (such as glass), no regularity in
arrangement of atoms is found. In fact, glass is said to be a super-cooled liquid.
! •! Before understanding crystal structures, it is necessary to know the
concept of ‗space lattice‘. A space lattice is defined as an array of points in three
dimensions in which every point has surroundings identical to those of every other
point in the array. E.g. in 2D space, a square or hexagonal lattice is possible.
! •! ‗Unit cell‘ is the smallest unit which, when repeated in space
infinitely, will yield a space lattice.
! •! A 3D space lattice is generated by repeated translation of 3
non-coplanar vectors a, b & c.
There are only 14 distinguish able ways of arranging points in 3D space conforming
to the definition of space lattice and they are referred to as Bravais‘lattices.!Bravais
lattices are described in terms of 7 crystal systems.

There are numerous factors which can influence the level of internal structure
which requires thorough understanding of concepts like

! -! equilibrium & kinetics

! -! geometry of crystals

! -! arrangement of atoms

! -! sub-structural imperfections in crystals

! -! diffusion of elements in solids

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 ! •!
The Bravais lattice or the unit cell as described above have inherent symmetry. The
symmetry elements comprise rotation / translation and reflection operations. The
unit cells are arranged in decreasing order of symmetry, Simple cubic having
highest symmetry and Triclinic having least symmetry.

! •! Crystal structure is a combination of space lattice with a basis.

BCC lattice + 1 Cr atom at each point in the space lattice gives rise to BCC crystal of
Cr Hexagonal lattice + 1 Zn atom at each lattice point and at the centre of

Tetragon results in Hexagonally Closed Packed (HCP) structure of Zn

! •! There are infinite ways of arranging atoms around each point in a

bravais lattice. For example, in one form of Mn there are 29 atoms grouped around
each BCC space lattice. In protein structures, the no. of atoms for the basis could be
as high as 10,000.

CHARACTERESTICS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

The important characteristics of each crystal structure are :

! i)! Effective or average no. of atoms, Neff

It is the no. of atoms exclusive to the unit cell and will vary with the unit cell.

! ii)! Co-ordination number

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It is the no. of equi-distant neighbours that an atom has in unit cell and will vary Metals such as g Iron, Sodium, Chromium and Tunsten have this
with the unit cell. structure.
! iii)! atomic diameter
Characteristics of Face Centred Cubic (FCC) Structure
The lattice parameter and atomic diameter (closest distance of approach) are
directly related and will vary with the unit cell. ✤ Effective or average no. of atoms, Neff = Nc / 8 + Nf / 2 = 8 / 8
+ 6 / 2 = 4.
! iv)! atomic packing
Where Nc is the no. of corner atoms. In FCC, there are 8 corner
This is described by the atomic packing factor which is the ratio of volume occupied
atoms and each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells (4 above and 4
by the atoms and volume of the unit cell. Atomic packing factor is also called
atomic packing efficiency. below)and Nf is the face centred atom in the unit cell ( each face
centred atom is shared by two adjacent cells).
The above characteristics of each crystal structure viz Simple cubic, BCC, FCC and
HCP will be discussed below. • Co-ordination number is 12. For any atom in given plane, there
are 4 nearest neighbour atoms in the same plane and 4 atoms in
Characteristics of Body Centred Cubic (BCC) the plane just above and 4 atoms in the plane just below.
Structure
• In this lattice, the atoms are touching in the Face diagonal.
Effective or average no. of atoms, Neff = Nc / 8 + Ni / 1 = 8 / 8 + 1 = 2. Hence, √2 a = 4r, Where a is the lattice parameter and r is the
Where Nc is the no. of corner atoms. In BCC, there are 8 corner atoms and each
atomic radius.
corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells (4 above and 4 below) and Ni is the inside
atom in the unit cell.
Atomic Packing Factor =
• Co-ordination number is 8. This can be visualised by focussing on the centre
atom which has corner atoms as nearest neighbours. v : vol. of atoms occupied in the unit cell ; V : vol. of Unit cell

• In this lattice, the atoms are touching in the Body diagonal. Hence, √3 a = 4r, • Metals such as g Iron, Copper, Nickel, Aluminum, Silver and
Where a is the lattice parameter and r is the atomic radius. Gold have FCC structure. Compared to Simple cubic and BCC,
FCC is closely packed structure.
Atomic Packing Factor =
Characteristics of Hexagonally Closed Packed
v : vol. of atoms occupied in the unit cell ; V : vol. of Unit cell structure (HCP)

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• Effective or average no. of atoms, Neff = Nc /6 +Nf /2 + Ni /1 = 12 / 6 + 2 / 2 +
3 = 6. Where Nc is the no. of corner atoms. In HCP, there are 12 corner atoms and
each corner atom is shared by 6 atoms in the same plane ; Nf is the face centered
atom, there are 2 atoms in the unit cell ( each face centered atom is shared by two
adjacent cells) ; Ni is the inner atoms and there are 3 atoms in the unit cell.
Co-ordination number is 12. For any atom in given plane, there are 6 nearest
neighbour atoms in the same plane, 3 atoms in the plane just above and 3 atoms
in the plane just below.
• In this lattice, the atoms are touching in the Basal plane. Hence, a = 2r, Where a is
the lattice parameter and r is the atomic radius. In HCP, the lattice height c is
related to lattice parameter. Hence c / a ratio needs to be calculated.
• Metals such as Zn and Mg have HCP structure. Compared to Simple cubic and
BCC, HCP is closely packed structure.
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CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
Ideal crystals are those which are obtained by combining a basis of atomic
arrangement and a space lattice and the no. of such combinations is infinite. On the
other hand real crystals are finite and have occasional disruptions in periodicity
within a crystal. The disrupted regions are called imperfections and are very small
in volume, usually less than 0.01% of total volume. While the presence of
imperfections may not alter certain properties like Melting point, density, chemical
activity etc their presence even in ppm (parts per million) may significantly
influence certain mechanical and electrical properties. For e.g. presence of vacancies
will influence phase transformations in alloy systems ; presence of small aluminum
impurities (introduced as dopants) in Silicon will change transistor action.
Crystalline imperfections can be classified as :
! -! Point imperfections
! -! Line imperfections
! -! Surface imperfections
Volume imperfections like pores, foreign inclusions etc are those that are inherited
during manufacturing processes. All imperfections cause local strains. For e.g.
consider Fe-C system. At high temperature, C atoms occupy octahedral voids of
FCC Iron. While the size of the void is 0.53 Å, the size of C atom is 0.71 Å. Hence,
when C atoms occupy the void space, it will cause local strain and this also imposes
maximum solubility for C atoms which is around 2% in FCC Fe. At room
temperature, Iron exists in BCC form and the solubility limit is much lower.
Role of imperfections in Engineering materials :
Role of Imperfections in Engineering materials is vital in several of their
characteristics. Some of them are: metal flow & Fracture, characteristics; crystal
growth; electrical properties such as semi-conducting behaviour , dielectric strength
; diffusion mechanism creep characteristics of metals & alloys ; annealing &
precipitation ; oxidation & corrosion yield strength, Fracture, strength, ductility,
thermal conductivity
Point imperfections Line imperfections :

These are also known as zero dimensional imperfections, each of them having a size Line imperfections are known as dislocations. In a geometric sense these are one
of one or two atom diameters. Types of Point imperfections are : dimensional and play a major role in strength and ductility of materials. Types of
dislocations are as under:

! -! Edge dislocation

! -! Screw dislocation

! -! Curved dislocation ( a mixture of edge and screw dislocation and the

dislocation line extends upto the free surface)
Vacancy! substitutional Impurity! interstitial Impurity
! -! Dislocation loop ( a mixture of edge and screw dislocation and the
! -! vacancies. These are missing atomic sites. dislocation line ends in itself within the crystal)

! -! Substitutional & interstitial impurities - Substitutional impurity is that

which substitutes the atomic site of the parent atom and interstitial impurity is that
which occupies the void space in the parent crystal in between the atoms without
dislodging the parent atoms.

! -! Frenkel and Schottky defects – These are imperfections in ionic

crystals. In these, the formation of Point defect is subject to the basic requirement
that the electrical neutrality is maintained. An ion displaced from a regular site to
an interstitial site is called Frenkel defect. A pair of one cation (+ ion) and one anion
(- ion) missing from the crystal is called Schottky defect.

LINE IMPERFECTIONS

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Edge dislocation :
Edge dislocation is one wherein there is an incomplete vertical plane of atoms.
Atoms above the edge of the incomplete plane are squeezed and hence in a state of
compression. Atoms below the edge are pulled apart and hence in a state of
tension.
Edge dislocation is characterized by Burgers Vector.
If a Burger‘s circuit is made in a crystal with a screw dislocation, the starting point P
and the end point Q is not the same. The Burger‘s vector QP is parallel to the
dislocation line vector‗t‖.Positive screw dislocation is represented by a symbol
wherein the dislocation and Burger‘s vector are parallel and in the same direction.
Negative screw dislocation is represented by a symbol wherein the dislocation and
Burger‘s vector are anti-parallel

Consider a perfect crystal and make a circuit of equal no. of atomic steps in + & - Comparison between Edge and Screw dislocation
axis of x and equal no. of atomic steps in + & - axis of y direction staring from Point
P as shown. This is called Burger‘s circuit. In this case we return to the same point.

! !
Burgers circuit in a Burgers circuit in a crystal with a edge

perfect crystal! dislocation

If a similar Burger‘s circuit is made in a crystal with an edge dislocation, the end
point Q is different from starting Point, P. The vector QP is perpendicular to the
dislocation line vector ‗t‘. Edge dislocation is characterized by a symbol g which is
positive i.e. the extra half plane is above the edge of the dislocation and the atoms
above the edge are in a state of compression.. Negative dislocation (T) has extra half
plane below the edge and the atoms above the edge are in a state of tension.

Screw dislocation :

Screw dislocation is one where the atoms are arranged in a helical form unlike
assemblage of vertical planes in a perfect crystal.

Burgers vector in a Perfect crystal vector in a crystal with a screw dislocation

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Properties of dislocations :
• dislocations have distortional strain energy associated with them. The strain
energy per unit length is given by (G b2/2), where G is Rigidity modulus and
‗b‖ is the Burger‘s vector
• dislocations are classified as either Full dislocations (where the Burger‘s vector is
an integral multiple of lattice translation) or partial dislocation (where the
Burger‘s vector is a fraction of lattice translation). Full dislocation with Burger‘s
vector b1 tends to break down to partial dislocations b2& b3 if b12> b22 + b32
• dislocations move under the influence of shear stress
• dislocations! interact! with! each! other! and! also! with! other!
point imperfections and cause either increase or decrease of strength of material
few atom diameters in thickness. The crystal orientation sharply changes at the
grain boundary and the orientation difference is normally more than 10 - 15g. The
number of nearest neighbours at such regions in FCC crystal is 11 as compared to 12
in the interior. These are also referred to as high angle boundaries
Tilt boundaries are those which are formed when there is a compilation or
accumulation of dislocations in a single region. In such regions the orientation
difference between the crystals is less than 10g. These are referred to as low angle
boundaries
Stacking faults are planar imperfections created by stacking arrangement of
atomic planes. For e.g. consider stacking arrangement of planes in FCC crystal. It is
………………ABCABCABCABC……..

Surface imperfections :
where ‗A‘ is the first layer of atoms ; ‗B‘ is the next layer of atoms with centres of
These are 2-Dimensional in geometric sense and refer to regions of distortions
atoms occupied by say triangle with apex up ; ‗C‘ is layer over ‗B‘ with centres of
having a thickness of few atomic diameters. All the surface imperfections are
atoms occupied by say triangle with apex down.. It may so happen that there is a
associated with surface energies. Following are the various types of surface
stacking fault in the sequence;
imperfections:
………………ABCABCBCABC……..
I. !external surface

II. !grain boundary

III. !tilt boundary

IV. !stacking faults -! twin boundary

External surface is a surface imperfection because atomic bonds are broken at the
surface. For e.g. consider FCC crystal. While the interior planes of atoms have a
co-ordination number (or nearest neighbours) of 12, the surface atoms have only a
co-ordination number of 9.

Grain boundaries are caused during solidification in polycrystalline materials.

When several crystals nucleate and grow, they eventually impinge on one another
and at the meeting regions, the atoms are distorted. The distorted regions are only

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In such a case, the nearest neighbour still remains 12. But the fault causes small
surface energy associated with it.
Twin!boundary! is planar imperfection caused as a result of slight disturbance in
the atomic arrangement. Atomic arrangement on one side of a twin boundary is a
mirror reflection of the arrangement on the other side. Twin boundaries occur in
pairs. The region between the! twin! boundaries! is called twinned region.
Twins can form either during annealing(annealing twins)! or during Twin
deformation (deformation twins). Tin cry is one example of deformation twin.
Atomic Diffusion
Diffusion refers to movement of atoms in solids. Structural control in a solid to
achieve optimum properties is dependent on the rate of diffusion. Examples where
the diffusion process is of relevance are carburisation in steels ; oxidation of metals ;
introduction of dopants in semiconductor solid state materials etc. Diffusion is a
mass flow process by which atoms change their positions under the influence of
thermal energy and a gradient like concentration gradient, electrical & magnetic
field gradient. Diffusion process can becharacterized by Fick’s first law under
steady state and Fick’s second law under nonsteady state conditions.
Diffusivity & activation energy
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Diffusivity or coefficient of diffusion (D) is defined as the amount of substance
diffusing in unit time across an unit area through an unit concentration gradient. Its
unit is m2/sec. The coefficient of diffusion of various materials vary with crystal
structure & temperature. In a diffusion process, work must be done if the atoms
have to migrate. To do this work, an energy barrier has to be overcome and this
minimum energy to overcome the barrier is called activation energy. It depends on
a number of factors :
• a small atom has a lower activation energy than a bigger atom
• movement of interstitial atoms require more energy than vacancy movement
• higher activation energy is required for atomic movements for those materials
which are strongly bonded
Relation between D & activation energy :
D = D0 exp [ -Q/RT]
D is diffusion coefficient m2/sec ;D0 constant
Q activation energy (J/mol
R as constant (8.314 J/mol –K
T absolute temperature (K)
Surface diffusion – Grain boundaries and external surface aid in the process of
diffusion. Pipe diffusion – line imperfections also provide the path for diffusion).
Although surface & Pipe diffusion have lower activation energy as compared to
lattice diffusion, surface area being less, their possibilities are low.
Mechanism of diffusion Grain Boundaries & Grain size: Diffusion is rapid along grain boundaries,
since these have surface energy associated with them. However, since surface area
is less, diffusion possibility is low. Finer the grain size, higher will be the grain
boundary area and faster will be the diffusion.

Atomic size : Diffusion occurs more readily when the size of atom is smaller. E.g.
C in iron.

Factors affecting diffusion

Diffusion is a mass flow process by which atoms change their positions and hence
there are number of factors that influence its occurrence :

Temperature : High temperature provides higher activation energy to the atoms

and hence atomic diffusion is faster

Crystal imperfections : If the crystal has higher number of imperfections, the

rate of diffusion increases

Atomic packing factor : Diffusion is easier and faster inMetalswith less atomic
packing factor.! E.g. Diffusion is much slower in FCC iron (APF:0.74) as
compared to BCC iron (APF : 0.68).

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SECTION 1

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

Materials when subjected to externally applied loads deform. The deformations may be - visco-elastic deformation
temporary (recoverable) or permanent (irrecoverable). Further, the deformation can be
either time independent or time dependent. Accordingly, the deformation behaviour is - creep deformation
classified as under:

- elastic deformation

- anelastic deformation

- plastic deformation

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Elastic deformation
It is small, time independent and fully recoverable. It occurs in metals within in the elastic
limits. During elastic deformation Hooke‘s law is obeyed.
Hooke’s law : stress is proportional to strain ; E (Young‘s Modulus) = stress / strain Other
properties in Elastic regime :
Young‘s Modulus for typical materials :
An elastic deformation
It is small and fully recoverable. However it is time dependent. It may or may not obey
Hooke‘s law. It occurs in materials like rubber, plastics and in some metals due to
thermoelastic phenomena. During this process, applied load is within elastic limits. A
relaxation process continues to work within the material even after removal of the load.
During the relaxation process, there could be jumping of atoms by diffusion or atomic
vibration or grain boundary flow. Relaxation process may be very slow or very fast.
Anelastic materials have excellent damping characteristics. For e.g., Grey cast Iron has
higher damping capacity as compared to steels. Neoprene rubber & composite materials
have still better damping characteristics.
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Visco-elastic deformation
When both temporary (recoverable) and permanent deformation occur together and are time
dependent, then such a deformation is referred to as visco-elastic deformation. Polymers
exhibit visco-elastic behaviour. The behaviour has to be analysed from the standpoints of
both purely elastic & Newtonian flow models. Plastic deformation:
It is large, permanent & time independent. In this regime Hooke‘s law is not obeyed. It
occurs in crystalline metallic materials beyond their elastic limit.
Linear Elastic Properties :
If the stress vs strain relationship is linear upto elastic limit, then the behaviour of materials
is termed as having linear elastic properties. All metals and ceramic materials exhibit this
behaviour. These properties are Stiffness, Elastic limit and Modulus of Resilience.
Stiffness :
Stiffness is defined as the resistance offered by the material in the elastic region. Young‘s
modulus (E) which is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve. Materials
having higher E values show higher stiffness.
Elastic limit :
It is defined as the maximum stress value which can be applied to a material maintaining
Hooke‘s law. Upon removal of this stress, the material returns to its original dimensions. For
most of the metallic materials, elastic and proportional limit are the same. Proportional
stress : It is defined as the stress at the limit of proportionality of Engg. stress vs Engg.
Strain curve. After this point, the stress – strain curve deviates from linearity.
Modulus of Resilience
It is defined as the energy absorbed by the material without permanent deformation.It is
obtained by determining the area under the Engg stress-Engg strain curve upto elastic
limit.Higher modu;us of resilence is preferred for springs and diaphragms.metals for such
applications include Spring steel,brass and Cu-Be alloy
Plastic properties of materials :
Yield strength lo= original length of specimen between gauge marks

It is defined as the stress at which material starts yielding i.e. material begins to plastically
deform. Certain materials like low C steel exhibit sharp yield point behaviour and most of
the ductile materials do not exhibit sharp yield point behaviour. For materials which exhibit
sharp yield point behaviour, lower yield point is taken as yield strength for design purposes.
For materials which do not exhibit sharp yield point behaviour, a method known as ‗off set
‗ method is adopted. In this, 0.2% strain is marked in the x axis and a line parallel to the
linear portion of Engg. Stress – Engg. Strain curve is drawn and the intersecting point on the
curve is taken as 0.2% Proof or Yield stress.
Ao=original area of cross section of specimen
Af=Final area of cross section of specimen after fracture
Toughness
It is the total energy absorbed by a material before fracturing. A tough material has much
higher resistance to crack propagation. It is obtained by determining the area under the True
stress – True strain curve up to Fracture, point.

Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS):

It is also called Tensile strength. It is the maximum stress value that can be withstood in the
plastic region without necking or failure. UTS represents max. strength without necking in
ductile materials and breaking stress in the case of brittle materials.

Ductility

Ductility of a material is either taken as % elongation at Fracture, or %r Reduction in area as

defined below:

PLASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Where lf = final length of specimen between guage marks after fracture

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PLASTIC DEFORMATION BY SLIP AND TWINNING (present in limited number) aid the process of slip. Twinning is more common in HCP
structures. The best way to analyse the Plastic deformation of materials is to first understand
Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation that can be caused only by shear stress the response of deformation behaviour of single crystal as it does not have any grain
either by a process of slip or Twinning boundaries (which will otherwise blur the effect).

Process of slip Plastic deformation of Single crystals by Slip

Slip is a process by which atoms slide past each other in a coordinated manner from their Schmid recognised that different tensile loads are required to produce slip in single crystals
original equilibrium position to a new equilibrium position under the action of external shear of different orientation. Consider a single crystal with slip plane making an angle
stress. The plane over which slip occurs is called slip plane. The slip plane is the plane
g with the load axis and slip direction making an angle g with the load axis. Let A be the
where atoms are closely packed which provides least resistance to the movement of atoms.
area on which the load acts. Determining the area of slip plane and resolving the load in slip
Further, the direction in which slip takes place is that direction where linear atomic density
direction,
is the highest. The theoretical prediction of shear strength based on slip without any
imperfection works out to a value far higher than the experimentally determined one..
Hence, it is obvious that the presence of dislocations reduces the shear stress value to a great
extent. The process of slip in the presence is described below.

Out of the two deformation processes, slip is more predominant than twinning. Slip occurs
readily in preferred planes and directions. The favoured slip plane is closed packed plane
(planes having highest no. of atoms per unit area) as these provide least frictional resistance
to the moving dislocations. The most favoured slip direction is closed packed direction (i.e.
direction having highest linear atomic density) giving rise to minimum translation. A slip
plane and a slip direction constitutes a slip system. The mechanism of slip requires
movement of line imperfections, as otherwise enormous shear stress is required to cause slip
in perfect crystals without the presence of dislocations. Hence, it is clear that line perfections

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Strengthening mechanisms in Metals
Ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on ease of dislocation motion under applied
external stresses.. As mentioned in earlier section,, strengthening of a metal consist
hindering dislocation motion.. Dislocation motion can be hindered in many ways,, thus are
strengthening mechanisms in metals.. Strenghening by methods of grain--size reduction,,
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solid solution alloying and strain hardening applies for single--phase metals.. Precipitation
hardening,, dispersion hardening,fibre strengthening and Martensite strengthening are
applicable to multiphase metallic materials..
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
This strengthening mechanism is based on the fact that crystallographic orientation changes
abruptly in passing from one grain to the next across the grain boundary.. Thus it is difficult
for a dislocation moving on a common slip plane in one crystal to pass over to a similar slip
plane in another grain,, especially if the orientation is very misaligned.. In addition,, the
crystals are separated by a thin non-crystal in region,, which is the characteristic structure of
a large angle grain boundary.. Atomic disorder at the boundary causes discontinuity in slip
planes.. Hence dislocations are stopped and pile up against it.. The smaller the grain size,,
the more frequent is the pile up of dislocations.. A twin boundary can also act as an obstacle
to dislocation motion..
A grain boundary can hinder the dislocation motion in two ways:: (11)) by forcing the
dislocation to change its direction of motion and (22)) discontinuity of slip plane because of
disorder.. Effectiveness of grain boundary depends on its characteristic misalignment,,
represented by an angle.. The ordinary high angle grain boundary (misalignment > 5 )
represents a region of random misfit between the grains on each side of the boundary.. This
structure contains grain-boundary dislocations which are immobile.. However they group
together within the boundary to form a step or grain boundary ledge.. These ledges can act
as effective sources of dislocations as the stress at end of slip plane may trigger new
dislocations in adjacent grains.
Solid Solution Strengthening
Adding atoms of another element that those occupy interstitial or substitutional positions in
parent lattice increases the strength of pa rent material.. This is because stress fields
generated around the solute atoms interact with the stress fields of a moving dislocation,,
thereby increasing the stress required for plastic deformation i..ee.. the impurity atoms cause
lattice strain which can "aanchor"" dislocations.. This occurs when the strain caused by the
alloying element compensates that of the dislocation,, thus achieving a state of low potential
energy.. Since solid-solution alloy additions affect the entire stress--strain curve,, it can be
said that solute atoms have more influence on the frictional resistance to dislocation motion
than on the static locking of dislocations.. Pure metals are almost always softer than their
alloys.. Solute strengthening effectiveness depends on two factors – size difference between
solute and parent atoms,, and concentration of solute atoms..
Strain Hardening

Two most important industrial processes used to harden meta ls or alloys are:: strain
hardening and heat treatment.. Strain hardening is used for hardening//strengthening
materials that are not responsive to heat treatment.. Th e phenomenon where ductile metals
become stronger and harder when they are deformed plastically is called strain hardening or
work hardening..

Intensity of strain hardening can be gaged from the slop e of the flow curve,, defined by the
parameter strain hardening exponent,, n . It is measure of the ability of a metal to strain
harden.. For a given amount of plastic strain,, higher the value of n,, greater is the strain
hardening.. Increasing temperature lowers the rate of strain hardening,, and thus the
treatment is given,, usually,, at temperatures well below the melting point of the material..
Thus the treatment is also known as cold working . Most metals strain hardens at room
temperature.. The consequence of strain hardening a material is improved strength and
hardness but material’s ductility will be reduced..

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SECTION 2

FRACTURE,FATIGUE AND

Fracture, is a process of breaking a solid into pieces as a result of material construction led to the perception of brittle and
stress. There are two principal stages of the fracture process.
ductile
The concept of material strength and fracture has long been
fractures as well as fatigue failure in metals..
studied to overcome failures..

• The introduction of malleable irons during the revolution of

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 A crack, formed as a result of the ductile Fracture,, propagates
slowly and when the stress is increased.Plastic deformation of a
multi-phase material causes formation and coalescence of voids on
the phase and inclusions boundaries. These voids are responsible
for the specific appearance of the ductile Fracture, surface,
consisting of numerous spherical micro- cavities (dimples),
initiating formation of the crack. Tensile specimen Fracture,d by
the ductile mechanism is characterized by the cap and cone
appearance of the Fracture,. Single-phase alloys and pure metals
are more ductile, than metals, containing second phases or
inclusions.

Brittle Fracture

Brittle fracture is characterized by very low plastic deformation

and low energy absorption prior

to breaking. A crack, formed as a result of the brittle Fracture,,

propagates fast and without increase of the stress applied to the
material. The brittle crack is perpendicular to the stress direction.
There are two possible mechanisms of the brittle Fracture,:
transcrystalline (transgranular, cleavage) or intercrystalline (inter
granular). Cleavage cracks pass along crystallographic planes
through the grains. Intercrystalline fracture occurs through the
grain boundaries, embrittled by segregated impurities, second
phase inclusions and other defects. The brittle fracture usually
possess bright granular appearance.
Ductile Fracture

Ductile materials undergo observable plastic deformation and

absorb significant energy before Fracture,.

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Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture

(a) Necking
(b) Formation of microvoids
(c) Coalescence of microvoids to form a crack

(d) Crack propagation by shear deformation

(di) (e) Fracture

A. Very ductile, soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at room temperature,

other metals, polymers, glasses at high temperature.

B. Moderately ductile fracture, typical for ductile metals

!

C. Brittle fracture, cold metals, ceramics.

FRACTURE

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CREEP
CREEP is a phenomenon of slow plastic deformation (elongation)
of a metal at high temperature under a constant load.
CREEP MECHANISM
At higher stresses the creep strain proceeds due to the dislocations movement. The
rate of creep is a function of the material, the applied stress value, the temperature,
and the time exposure. Considerable creep deformation, causing damage of
machines and structures occur at high temperatures (about a half of the melting
point measured in the absolute temperature scale). Therefore this phenomenon is
taken into account in design and operation of heat exchangers, steam boilers and
pipes, jet engines and other loaded equipment, working at high temperatures. Soft
metals (lead, tin) may experience creep at room temperature.
design. The rate of creep at the second stage depends on both the load (stress) and
the temperature.The third stage creep is associated with accelerated strain rate
caused by decrease of the cross sectional area of the specimen (necking). This stage
is finalized by the specimen Fracture.At room temperature creep is negligible at any
stress below the yield point. The quantity, which is used in precise design of
machines and structures working at elevated temperatures, is creep strength.Creep
strength is a stress which causes a definite creep strain after a specified period of
time at a given temperature. Creep strength of a material is much lower, than its
tensile strength.If a large amount of deformation is tolerated rupture strength is
used in design.Rupture strength is a stress which causes a Fracture, of a metal after
a specified period of time at a given temperature. Creep strength and rupture
strength are determined in stress- rupture tests conducted in [Tensile test and
Stress-Strain Diagram|tensile test]] machines equipped with a furnace providing
uniform heating of the tested specimens. This machine records amount of strain at
every moment after the test has started and until the specimen failure.

A typical creep behavior is presented in the diagram: Mechanism of Creep

There are many mechanisms of creep which have been proposed. We have already
remarked that creep is a thermally activated process. Some significant mechanisms
that play vital roles during the creep process

The initial strain is not time dependent and it is caused mainly by elastic
deformation. The first stage creep is characterized by relatively fast plastic (i) Dislocation climb
deformation occurring at decreasing rate. During this stage resistance creep
ii) Vacancy Diffusion and
increases causing decrease the deformation rate. The second stage creep occurs at a
constant and relatively low deformation rate. This rate is used in the engineering

20
(iii) Grain Boundary Creep Test
Sliding An appreciable atomic movement at high temperatures causes the
dislocations to climb up or down. In response to the applied stress, the diffusion
rate of vacancy may produce a motion, by a simple climb of edge dislocation.
Obviously, edge dislocations are piled up by the obstacles in the glide plane and the
rate of creep is governed by the rate of escape of dislocations past obstacles.
Random thermal vibrations help such atomic movement.

Another mechanism of creep is called diffusional creep or diffusion of vacancies.

The diffusion of vacancies controls the creep rate, but the mechanism does not
involve the climb of edge dislocations. In response to the applied stress, the
vacancies move from surfaces of the specimen transverse to the stress axis to the
surfaces that are parallel to the stress axisOver a period of time, this movement
would elongate the specimen in the direction of the stress axis and contract it in the
transverse direction resulting in creep.
The third mechanism of creep is the sliding of grain boundaries, i.e. sliding of
neighbouring grains with respect to the boundary that separates them (Fig. 8.21(c)).
As compared to individual grains, grain boundaries lose their strength at a lower
temperature. This effect arises from the non-crystalline structure of the grain
boundaries and grain boundaries play a major role in the creep of polycrystals at
high temperatures as they slide past each other or create vacancies. At higher
temperatures, ductile metals begin to lose their ability to strain-harden and become
viscous to facilitate the sliding of grain boundaries. We may note that at
temperatures above 0.5 Tm, the viscosity of the grain boundaries is small enough
for them to behave like a very viscous liquid separating the neighbouring grains
and allowing them to slide against each other. At low temperatures, grain
boundaries do not flow viscously, but provide effective obstacles to dislocation
motion. Obviously, the grain boundaries facilitate the deformation process by
sliding at high temperatures, whereas at low temperatures, they increase the yield
strength by stopping the dislocations.
This requires the measurement of four variables: stress, strain, temperature and
time. The objective of this testing is to determine the continuing change in the
deformation of materials at elevated temperatures when stresses below the yield
point.
A creep specimen is prepared, which is usually the same as the specimen of tensile
testing. At one end of the specimen a platinum wire is spot welded and to the other
end a platinum tube is spot welded. The platinum wire-slides inside the tube and
the reference marks are put on the both, wire and tube, which we may observe
through the telescope at the middle. There is a scale inside the telescope and
elongation can be measured. The specimen is loaded in the furnace along the pullies
(Fig. 8.22). With the help of the wire, the specimen is made to fix on the ground of
the furnace. As soon as the load is applied, the specimen come under the tension. To
measure the temperature, thermocouples are fixed along both the elongated ends of
the specimen.
First, a load is applied and initial or instantaneous elongation is measured with the
help of telescope. For a constant load, all that is needed is a dead weight and a
system of levers to multiply it to the required load. The temperature of the furnace
is allowed to increase upto a specified temperature. With the help of the telescope,
the increase in length of the specimen is measured along the platinum wire and
tube. For testing temperature upto 600°C, temperature must be controlled within

21
3°C. For the testing temperature within the range 600-800°C, the accuracy of ± 4°C
must be maintained whereas between 800-1000°C, the accuracy must be ± 6°C.
The strain in the specimen is measured by a strain gauge or by an optical
extensiometer. At each temperature under different loads (stresses), four or five
specimens are tested. For each specimen, elongation versus time curves are plotted.
The aim of the creep test to determine limiting creep stress. The limiting creep stress
is that stress which will just not break the specimen with applied stress for an
infinite period of time at a specific constant temperature. Creep test takes very long
time, i.e. about 10,000 hours. Creep test results are of use in the design of machine
parts, furnace parts, boilers, internal combustion engine, turbine blades which are
exposed to elevated temperatures.
CREEP RESISTANT MATERIALS
At elevated temperatures, materials used for machine parts and structural
components must be creep resistant. Materials used for turbine blades must be
creep resistant, i.e., they should not deform by creep during service. Creep can
result in seizing the blades with the turbine casing.
The materials to be used at high temperatures must have a high melting point. The
creep becomes significant at temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm. Refractory oxides,
e.g. MgO and Al2O3 have high melting points and, as such, are most suitable for
use at high temperature. Where only compressive stresses are encountered, their
brittleness limits their use to applications. The discovery of tougher ceramics, e.g.
Si3N4 (silicon nitride) indicate that selected parts of a heat engine such as piston
rings and cylinder heads can be produced from ceramic materials.
Under more versatile conditions, metals and alloys can be used. Most creep
resistance alloys consist of a base metal of a fairly high melting point. In aircraft
industry, aluminium alloys are mostly used. Aluminium alloy containing 4%
copper, 2% nickel and 1.5% magnesium is quite useful group of creep-resisting light
alloys called as Y- alloys. To develop creep resistance alloys there should be (i)
increased resistance of grains and grain boundaries to flow and (ii) minimum
softening of recovery effects.
22
For better mechanical properties in a low temperature application, where creep is
not important, a fine grained material is desirable. However, for high temperature
applications, fine grained materials are to be avoided, as grain boundary sliding can
add to creep deformation. We must note that grain boundary sliding is not a
problem in a single crystal as there are no grain boundaries in a single crystal. A less
expensive way of minimizing grain boundary sliding is to orient the grains in such
a way that the boundary sliding
does not result in cavities at grain junctions. These cavities, if present, can coalesce
together and cause creep Fracture,. It has been observed that creep will not occur to
any measurable extent below a certain temperature and this temperature is different
for different materials, as mentioned below:
• MetalTemperature (°C)! (at which creep begins)
• Copper180
• Lead–70
• Aluminium40
• Pure iron330
• Tungsten940
Some of the creep resistant materials are:
• ! ! Low alloy ferric steels: Iron containing 4% Cr, M and V, deriving their
creep resistance from carbide precipitates, good upto 650°C.
• High alloy ferrite steels: 304, 316, 321 stainless steel-iron containing a solid
• solution (mainly Ni and Cr) and precipitates, good upto 600°C.
• ! Ni based super alloys: Alloys of nickel containing a solid solution and Co)
and precipitates good upto 950°C.
• Refractory oxides and carbides: Like alumina (Al2O3), glass ceramics based on
SiO2, silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4) and sialon-alloys of Si3N4 and
Al2O3 good upto 1300°C.
FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The following factors affect the mechanical properties of a material:
(a) Grain Size This has an important effect on the mechanical properties of metals.
In comparison to coarse grained metals, fine grained steels offer better resistance to
cracking, produce fine surface finishes and can be shaped better. Fine grained steels
have higher strength but lower ductility and therefore, fine grain is specified for
structural applications (Fig. 8.24). Coarse grained steels have higher hardenability
and better forging properties.
b) Temperature It has been observed that the temperature affects the tenacity, elastic
limit, Young‘s modulus and other properties of steel and wrought iron as follows:
! (i)! With rise in temperature, yield stress, toughness and ultimate tensile
strength decreases, whereas Young‘s modulus decreases.
! (ii)! At higher temperatures (~ 450°C) embrittlement of steel and creep
occurs. It increases with time and thereby reducing the toughness.
! (iii)! With rise in temperature stiffness and Fracture, stress of many metals
decrease.
! (iv)! Several metals and large number of alloys exhibit the phenomenon of
superconductivity
! (v)! ! (infinite! conductivity! and! perfect! diamagnetism)!
near! absolute! zero temperature.
! (vi)! For unnotched mild steels, the elongation and reduction in
cross-sectional area is satisfactory upto 130°C. It goes down considerably below that
temperature.
Elongation rises
with further rise in temperature.
(vii)! Below 100°C, non-ferrous metals show better properties than ferrous metals.
(viii)! With the rise in temperature, there is also rise in thermal vibrations of atoms
causing changes in structural properties.
! (c)! Exposure to Atmosphere When exposed to atmosphere, most metals
get oxidised. Due to oxidation of metal surface, a film is formed. The presence of
chloride in marine atmosphere increases the conductivity of the liquid layer in
contact with the metal surface. The resistivity of metals decreases due to the
presence of moisture, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other corrosive
environments. Corrosive action is pronounced and varies with the humidity of the
air. Obviously, care should be taken while selecting the materials. When exposed to
atmospheric conditions, metals like chromium, S.S., aluminium and nickel show
exceptional resistance.
! (d)! Heat Treatment By heat treatment, one can improve mechanical
properties like tensile strength, hardness, toughness, and wear resistance. Heat
treatment is generally carried out to
! (i)! Improve machinability
! (ii)! Improve resistance to corrosion
! (iii)! Improve chemical, magnetic, electrical and thermal properties
! (iv)! Improve mechanical properties, e.g. ductility, hardens tensile strength,
shock resistance etc.
! (v)! Relieve internal stresses induced during cold and hot working
! (vi)! Modification of the structure and grain size
! (e)! Carbon Content Compared to the other ferrous and non-ferrous
materials, carbon steels are widely used engineering materials. There are many
types of carbon steels, each designed by the metallurgist, to have particular
properties required by the engineer. Carbon steel is basically an alloy of iron and
carbon containing manganese (1.0% max); silicon (0.5% max); sulphur (0.04% max)
and phosphorus (0.05% max).
The last two elements are introduced as impurities by the raw materials used
during manufacture of steel and kept as minimum as possible. Silicon is residue

23
from the steel making process. Carbon and manganese have a significant influence
on the mechanical properties and uses of steel. Carbon steel is widely used due to
following reasons:
• it is comparatively cheap.
• its properties can be improved further by heat treatment.
• it has wide range of mechanical properties, which can be further improved by
the addition of alloying elements and proper control of carbon content.
• it is readily available in different size and shapes.
• one can easily shape into any form by bending, drawing or forging.
• one can machined and weld it easily.
• consumes less energy during production.
• one can remelt and recycle it again. About 40% of todays production of
carbon-steel is by recycling.
Fatigue:
It is the failure of a material by Fracture, when subjected to a cyclic stress. Fatigue
can occur at a stress whose amplitude is much smaller than the static load required
to produce Fracture,. The maximum stress that a material can withstand without
failure for a specific large number of cycles of stress is termed its fatigue or
endurance limit.Fatigue is distinguished by three main features: (i) loss of strength
(ii) loss of ductility and (iii) increased uncertainty in strength and service life.
Engineering materials are often subjected to fluctuating loads while in service. Few
examples of com- ponents which are subjected to fluctuating loads or alternate
stresses are: (i) aircraft wings subjected to turbulent air (ii) leaf springs bent to and
fro (iii) connecting rods pushed and pulled in piston engines and (iv) some parts of
compressors, pumps and turbines, etc. subjected to repeated loading and vibration.
If a metal wire is bent to and fro several times, it ultimately breaks. Rotating and
vibrating parts of machines as in aeroplanes are liable to undergo fatigue and cause
accidents. About 80% of failure in engineering components takes place due to
fatigue failure. Steel have generally a fatigue limit which is normally 0.4 to 0.5 times
24
the tensile strength of the material. Due to the effect of inhomogeneities under
repeated loading, fatigue results in brittle Fracture, with no gross deformation at the
Fracture,. Obviously, fatigue Fracture,s occur without any warning. They result in
brittle Fracture,.
1. In all materials including metals, plastics, rubber and concrete, fatigue is an
important form of behaviour. In addition to the above mentioned situations
there are many other situations where fatigue failure will be very harmful.
Under following conditions, the fatigue Fracture, progresses rapidly: (i)
maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value
2. large vibrations or fluctuations in applied stress (iii) large number of cycles of
applied stress and (iv) other variables which may change the conditions of
failure such as stress concen- tration, over loading, corrosion, residual stresses,
etc. Due to difficulty of recognizing fatigue conditions, fatigue failures comprise
percentage of failures occurring in engineering. The point at which the curve
flattens out is termed as the fatigue limit and is well below the normal yield
stress. The fatigue strength is usually defined as the stress that produces failure
in a given number of cycles usually 107. To avoid stress concentrations, rough
surfaces and tensile residual stresses, fatigue specimens must be carefully
prepared. Fatigue properties of a material are affected by several factors, e.g.: (i)
Corrosion: The effect of corrosion is to reduce the number of cycles required to
reach for every stress amplitude. We can protect the steel against salt corrosion
by chromium or zinc-plating.
3. ! Surface Finish: Scratches, dents, identification marks can act as stress raisers
and so reduce the fatigue properties. It is reported that shot peening a surface
produces surface compressive residual stresses and improves the fatigue
performance. Electro-plating produces tensile residual stresses and have a
detrimental effect on the fatigue properties.
4. Temperature: As a consequence of oxidation or corrosion of the metal surface
increasing, increase in temperature can lead to a reduction in fatigue properties.
5. ! Micro Structure of an Alloy: Composition of an alloy and its grain size can
affect its fatigue properties. In comparison to coarse grained steel, finer grain size
steels have higher strength. In addition to higher strength, fine grain size also
results in better resistance to cracking, better machine finish and improved
 plastic deformation. In comparison to fine grains, coarse grained steels are less
tough and have a greater tendency for distortion. Addition of lead and sulphur
in steel increases its machinability and can act as nuclei for fatigue and so reduce
fatigue properties.

6. ! Residual Stresses: Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing

processes. Case hardening of steels by carburising results in compressive
residual stresses, on surface it improves the fatigue. Several machining processes
produce tensile residual stresses, which impair the properties.

7.Heat Treatment: This reduces residual stresses within a metal. By producing

compressive residual stresses in surfaces, case hardening improves fatigue
properties. However hardening and tempering treatments reduce surface
compressive stresses and so adversely affect fatigue properties.
Rotating Beam Fatigue Test

8.Stress Concentrations: These are caused by sudden changes in cross-section, The most common test loading for fatigue testing is pure bending, because it is easy
keyways, holes, or sharp corners can more easily lead to a fatigue failure. Even a to apply. A circular specimen is gripped in collets (Fig. 8.15). Figure shows the test
small hole lowers fatigue-limit by 30%. To study the effect of stress raisers on specimen and main features of the testing machine. The test machine has high
fatigue, a specimen containing V-notch or circular notch is prepared. When speed electrical motor with a speed of 1000 rpm. Next to the motor there is a large
specimen is loaded, the notch has the following effects: (i) a taxial state of stress is bearing, which relieves the motor from large bending moment which is applied to
produced (ii) stress gradient is set up from the root of the notch to the center of the the specimen. A collet is attached with a rotating lever arm which is further
specimen (iii) there is stress concentration at the notch. A crack is developed due to connected with a small bearing.
stress concentration at the root.Fatigue is caused by fluctuating stresses. Figure
A force is applied on the bearing, which causes the specimen to bend. The upper
shows the different arrangements of fatigue loadings and corresponding stress
surface of the specimen will be under tension, whereas the lower surface in
cycles. Figure(a) shows the simplest type of load as the alternating stress, where the
compression. Since the specimen is rotated by a motor, the surface of specimen is
stress amplitude is equal to the maximum stress and the average or mean stress is
subjected to alternate tensile and compressive stresses. The revolution counter
zero. This stress cycle is of sinusoidal form. Figure b) shows the repeated stress
reader provided with the machine records the number of cycles applied and when
cycle. This type of loading produces alternating stresses, superimposed on a steady
the specimen breaks then the counter automatically disengages. Truly, the
stress the maximum stress is equal to the sum of the mean stress and stress
disengaging device is designed to stop the testing machine itself.
amplitude. The maximum and minimum values can be considered as tensile and
compressive stresses about the axis shown by dashed lines. Figure (c) shows a
complicated stress cycle which is periodic and unpredictable, e.g. air craft wings.

25
 the material is loaded to a stress below the fatigue limit, it will not fail, no matter
how many times the stress is applied. For all ferrous metals tested, and for most
non-ferrous metals, these S- N diagrams become almost horizontal for values of N
ranging from 1 ´ 106 to 5 ´ 107 cycles, thus indicating a welldefined endurance limit.
We must note that the number of cycles are arbitrarily taken.

In order to obtain the fatigue limit, i.e. endurance limit of a metal, it is necessary to
prepare a number of specimens which are representative of that metal. The first
specimen of metal is tested at a relatively high stress so that the failure will occur at
a small number of applications of the stress. The other specimens of the metal are
tested relatively at a lower stress than the previous one. With the decrease in stress
value, the life of specimen increased. The number of repetition required to produce
rupture, i.e., Fracture, increases as the stress decreases.Specimen with stress below
the endurance limit will not rupture.

The life of the specimen is expressed in number of cycles re-Fatigue limit required
upto failure at maximum applied force. The results of fatigue tests are commonly
VIDEO ON CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
plotted on diagrams in which values. Aluminium alloy of stress are plotted as
ordinates and values of cycles of stress for rupture as abscissae. The curve is called
S-N diagram, where S-stands for stress and N for number of cycles (Fig.).These
diagrams are drawn using semi-logarithmic plotting, i.e.Number of cycles to failure
(N)plotting ‗N‘ on logarithmic scale.The form of S-N curve is of much significance
to engineers. For metals, e.g. mild steel and titanium the curve becomes horizontal
at certain stress. This stress value is termed as fatigue limit or endurance
limit.Below this stress value, the specimen does not fail or Fracture,, i.e. the material
will not fail even after infinite number of stress cycles. Obviously, this shows that if

26
 Question 1 of 5
Which of the following is a property of amorphous solids

A. Sharp melting point

B. Isotrophy

C. Long range order

D. Definite heat of fusion

KEYNOTE ON CREEP

Check Answer

27
CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS

Crystal defect, imperfection in the regular geometrical arrangement of the atoms in a

crystalline solid. These imperfections result from deformation of the solid, rapid cooling
from high temperature, or high-energy radiation (X-rays or neutrons) striking the solid.

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Chapter 1 - Basic,MechanicalBehaviour,Failure of materials Behaviour,Failure of materials

Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration (or
high chemical potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a
result of random motion of the molecules or atoms. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in
chemical potential of the diffusing species.

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Engineering material

Materials that are used as raw material for any sort of construction or manufacturing in an
organized way of engineering application are known as Engineering

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Fatigue

In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied

loads. It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic loading.

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Chapter 1 - FRACTURE
Fracture

A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action
of .... Recently, scientists have discovered supersonic fracture, the phenomenon of crack
propagation faster than the speed of sound in a material.

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Chapter 1 - FRACTURE