Chemical Foundations

General/Inorganic Chemistry

Prepared by: Michael Angelo R. Circulado

Chemistry

• the scientific study of matter and its

properties, the changes that matter
undergoes, and the energy associated
with those changes
• Matter - anything that has mass and
volume
• In chemistry, we want to know the
composition of matter, the types and
amounts of simpler substances that make
it up.
• A substance is a type of matter that has a
defined, fixed composition.
States of Matter

• Matter occurs commonly in three different

forms called states: solid, liquid, and gas.
• Solid - has a fixed shape that does not
conform to the container shape. Solids are not
defined by rigidity and hardness. For instance,
solid Fe is rigid and hard, but solid lead is
flexible, and solid wax is soft.
• Liquid - has a varying shape that conforms to
the container shape, but only to the extent of
the liquid’s volume; i.e. it has an upper surface
• Gas - also has a varying shape that conforms
to the container shape, but it fills the entire
container, and thus, does not have a surface
Properties of Matter and Its Changes
• Physical properties - characteristics shown by a substance itself, without changing into
or interacting with another substance (e.g. color, melting point)
• Physical change - occurs when a substance alters its physical properties, not its
composition (e.g. changes of state of matter)
• Chemical properties - characteristics shown by a substance as it changes into or
interacts with another substance (e.g. flammability, corrosiveness)
• Chemical change (or chemical reaction) - occurs when one or more substances are
converted into one or more substances with different composition and properties
Measurements
• The universally accepted SI unit system is based on seven fundamental (or base) units,
each identified with a physical quantity.

• All other units are derived units, combinations of the 7 base units.
Measurements
• Length
• The SI base unit, meter (m) is currently defined
as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in
1/299,792,458 of a second.
• An older unit, angstrom (Å) is still in use.
• 1 Å = 10-10 m = 0.1 nm
• Volume
• The derived SI unit of volume is the cubic meter
(m3). Although in chemistry, the units liter (L) and
milliliter (mL) are commonly used.
• 1 L = 1 dm3
Measurements
• Mass
• The standard of the SI unit kilogram (kg) is a platinum-iridium
cylinder kept in France.
• Time
• The SI unit, second (s) is defined as 9,192,631,770 oscillations
of microwave radiation absorbed by gaseous cesium atoms
cooled to around 10-6 K.

• To convert from one unit to another, a conversion factor is used.

Measurements
• Density - ratio between mass and volume of a substance
Measurements
• Temperature - measure of how hot or cold one object is relative to another, it is measured
using a thermometer
• Three common temperature scales: Celsius (ºC), Fahrenheit (ºF), kelvin (K)
Extensive & Intensive Properties
• Extensive properties - dependent on the amount of substance present (e.g. mass,
volume)
• Intensive properties - independent of the amount of substance (e.g. density)
Uncertainty in Measurement
• All measuring devices－balances, thermometers, and so forth－are made to limited
specifications, and we use our imperfect sense and skills to read them. Every
measurement, therefore includes some uncertainty.
• 2.0 ± 0.1 kg 2.036 ± 0.001 kg
• The “± 0.1 kg” term expressed the uncertainty in mass. The ± is generally dropped and
an uncertainty of one unit in the rightmost digit is assumed.
• The greater the number of significant figures, the greater is the certainty of a
measurement.
Significant Figures
• When taking measurements, it is important to know which digits are significant.
• Rules for counting significant figures:
1. Nonzero integers. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all nonzero digits. These don’t count as
significant figures. Example: 0.0025 only has 2 sig fig
b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant
figures. Example: 1.008 has 4 sig fig
c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only if
the number contains a decimal point. Examples: 100 only has 1 sig fig but 1.00×102
has 3 sig fig
3. Exact numbers. Numbers determined by counting (ex. 3 apples or 5 experiments), from
conversion factors (ex. 1 in = 2.54 cm), or from formulas (ex. c = 2πr). They are
assumed to have an infinite number of significant figures.
Significant Figures in Calculations
• Rules for arithmetic operations
1. For multiplication and division. The answer contains the same no. of sig fig as there are
in the measurement with the fewest significant figures. Example: Finding the volume of
a graphite composite with dimensions, 9.2 cm by 6.8 cm by 0.3744 cm

2. For addition and subtraction. The answer has the same no. of decimal places as there
are in the measurement with the fewest decimal places. Example. Finding the total
volume after adding 23.28 mL of water to a beaker already containing 83.5 mL. The
answer should be 106.8 mL (but not 106.78)
Significant Figures in Rounding Off Numbers
• Rules for rounding off
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases by 1. Example:
5.379 rounds to 5.38 if 3 sig fig
2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number remains the same. Example:
0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if 3 sig fig
3. If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases by 1 if it is odd, and remains
the same if it is even. Example: 17.75 rounds to 17.8 but 17.65 rounds to 17.6.
If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is followed by non-zeros,
rule 1 is followed. Example: 17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but 17.6523 rounds to 17.7.
4. Always carry one or two additional significant figures through a multistep calculation and
round off the final answer only.