INDEX

❖ INTRODUCTION
❖ HISTORY AND DISCOVERY
❖ GOALS
❖ HOW DO ANTIBIOTICS WORK?
❖ (5 BASIC MECHANISM OF
ANTIBIOTIC ACTION)
❖ WHY ARE ANTIBIOTICS
IMPORTANT?
❖ RESISTANCE
➢ ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
➢ HOW IS RESISTANCE SPREAD?
❖ 7 TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS
❖ PROS OF TAKING ANTIBIOTICS
❖ SIDE EFFECTS OF TAKING
ANTIBIOTICS
❖ EXPERIMENT
❖ BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION

In this project, we explore the profound impact of

antibiotics on microorganisms, delving into the intricate
dynamics of bacterial responses to these pharmacological
agents. Antibiotics, hailed as powerful tools in treating
infections, exert selective pressure on microbial
communities, influencing their survival and evolution. The
study aims to elucidate how antibiotics disrupt essential
cellular processes, leading to microbial inhibition or death.
By investigating the mechanisms behind antibiotic
resistance and its potential consequences, we seek a
comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay
between antibiotics and microorganisms. This exploration
holds crucial implications for enhancing our grasp of
antibiotic efficacy and the evolving landscape of microbial
adaptation.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

The narrative of antibiotics unfolds as a pivotal chapter in
medical history. Sir Alexander Fleming's serendipitous
discovery of penicillin in 1928 laid the cornerstone,
unveiling a transformative era in healthcare. This journey
into the history and discovery of antibiotics explores the
collaborative efforts of scientists like Florey and Chain,
who harnessed penicillin's potential for mass production
during World War II. Beyond penicillin, subsequent
discoveries expanded the arsenal of antibiotics, shaping
their diverse effects on microorganisms. The project
delves into the mechanisms underpinning antibiotic
action, illuminating the dual role of these agents in
treating infections and influencing microbial evolution.
Such historical insights not only honor scientific
milestones but also underscore the ongoing impact of
antibiotics on microbiology and public health.

GOALS
1. To study the effect of antibiotics
micro-organisms(bacteria).

2. To understand its mechanism.

HOW DO ANTIBIOTICS WORK?

Antibiotics work by targeting specific components or processes
crucial to bacterial survival. There are several mechanisms:

• 1. *Cell Wall Inhibition:* Antibiotics like penicillin

interfere with bacterial cell wall synthesis,
weakening the structure and leading to cell lysis.

• 2. *Protein Synthesis Interference:* Antibiotics such

as tetracycline or erythromycin disrupt bacterial
protein synthesis, preventing the formation of
essential proteins.

• 3. *DNA/RNA Interference:* Some antibiotics, like

quinolones, inhibit the replication or transcription of
bacterial DNA, impeding their ability to multiply.

• 4. *Metabolic Pathway Disruption:* Antibiotics can

disrupt bacterial metabolic pathways, hindering
processes necessary for bacterial survival.
 WHY ARE ANTIBIOTICS
IMPORTANT?

Antibiotics are vital in modern medicine for their

unparalleled role in treating bacterial infections. They
save countless lives by combating a wide array of
bacterial illnesses, from common infections to life-
threatening diseases. Antibiotics revolutionized medical
care, enabling surgical procedures, cancer treatments,
and organ transplants, which rely on preventing or
treating infections. Beyond their therapeutic significance,
antibiotics contribute to public health by controlling the
spread of infectious diseases. However, the emergence
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria highlights the delicate
balance of their importance, emphasizing the critical
need for judicious use to preserve their efficacy and
ensure continued success in managing bacterial
infections.
 RESISTANCE
• ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

Antibiotic resistance poses a grave threat as bacteria

evolve to withstand the effects of antibiotics, rendering
these medications less effective. Overuse and misuse of
antibiotics, whether in healthcare or agriculture,
accelerate this process. Resistant strains can compromise
the treatment of infections, leading to prolonged illness,
higher healthcare costs, and increased mortality.
Addressing antibiotic resistance demands a multifaceted
approach, emphasizing responsible antibiotic use,
enhanced surveillance, and the development of new
antimicrobial agents. Global collaboration is essential to
curb this growing crisis, preserving the effectiveness of
antibiotics and ensuring a sustainable future in the battle
against bacterial infections.

• HOW IS RESISTANCE SPREAD

 Antibiotic resistance spreads through various
mechanisms, primarily driven by the selective pressure
imposed by antibiotic use. In healthcare settings,
overprescription and misuse of antibiotics contribute
significantly. Patients not completing prescribed courses
and accessing antibiotics without prescription further
fuel resistance. Agriculture plays a role as well, with
extensive antibiotic use in livestock promoting resistant
strains. Additionally, resistant bacteria can transfer
genetic material containing resistance mechanisms to
others, accelerating the spread. Globalization facilitates
the movement of resistant strains across borders.
Addressing antibiotic resistance necessitates prudent
antibiotic use in healthcare, agriculture, and veterinary
practices, coupled with robust surveillance, infection
prevention, and the development of new antibiotics to
counter emerging resistant threats.

7 TYPES OF ANTIBIOTICS
Although there are well over 100 antibiotics the majority
come from only a few type of drugs. These are the main
classes of antibiotics
1. *Penicillins:* This class includes penicillin and
amoxicillin, inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis.

2. *Cephalosporins:* Examples like cephalexin, they also

target bacterial cell wall synthesis but are structurally
different from penicillins.

3. *Macrolides:* Erythromycin and azithromycin fall into

this category, disrupting bacterial protein synthesis.

4. *Tetracyclines:* Antibiotics such as doxycycline,

inhibiting protein synthesis by binding to the bacterial
ribosome.
5. *Quinolones:* Ciprofloxacin is a notable example,
acting on bacterial DNA replication and transcription.
6. *Sulfonamides:* Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is a
combination antibiotic inhibiting bacterial folic acid
synthesis.
7. *Aminoglycosides:* Gentamicin belongs to this group,
disrupting bacterial protein synthesis.

Each type has unique mechanisms, making them

effective against specific bacteria and infections.
 PROS OF TAKING ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics offer invaluable benefits in treating bacterial

infections, swiftly alleviating symptoms and preventing
the spread of harmful bacteria. They are instrumental in
managing a spectrum of illnesses, from common
respiratory infections to severe systemic conditions.
Antibiotics have revolutionized medical procedures,
enabling safer surgeries, organ transplants, and cancer
treatments by mitigating infection risks. Additionally,
they play a pivotal role in preventing the progression of
bacterial infections that, if left untreated, could lead to
serious complications or even fatalities. The judicious use
of antibiotics enhances public health by reducing the
burden of infectious diseases, contributing to overall
well-being and improved quality of life.
 SIDE EFFECTS OF TAKING
ANTIBIOTICS

While antibiotics are crucial for treating bacterial

infections, they may entail side effects. Common adverse
reactions include gastrointestinal disturbances like
nausea, diarrhea, or abdominal pain. Antibiotics can
disrupt the balance of normal flora in the digestive
system, leading to fungal overgrowth such as thrush.
Allergic reactions, ranging from mild rashes to severe
anaphylaxis, are possible. Prolonged antibiotic use may
contribute to antibiotic resistance. Some antibiotics, like
fluoroquinolones, can affect tendons, potentially causing
tendonitis or rupture. Additionally, antibiotics may
interact with other medications, impacting their efficacy.
It's crucial for individuals to communicate any concerning
symptoms to healthcare providers to ensure timely
intervention and appropriate management of side
effects.
 EXPERIMENT
AIM: To see the effect of antibiotics on bacteria count

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

• 10 test-tubes of sterilized water

• 10 PCA(Agar) plates
• Bunsen burner
Graduated cylinder
• Ethanol (Used for sterilizing, just flame is enough
most cases)
• Glass hockey stick
• Pipettes
• Refrigerator
• Incubator (A warm cabinet for growing bacteria)
• Scale
Large beaker
• Hot plate
• Sample antibiotic
 PROCEDURE
Step 1:
Prepare a culture media plate for growing bacteria
Step 2:
Get a sample of polluted water for test Mix 2 ml of
polluted water with 10 ml chicken broth in a test tube
and incubate it for 24 hours so the bacteria will
reproduce and increase Usually this is done on a
device that constantly moves, so the bacteria can
freely move in the liquid Most likely you will not have
a vibrator, so it is good if you shake the test tube a
few times during this incubation period
Step: 3
While the bacteria are being incubated, prepare
some antibiotic disks as described here (Antibiotic
disks can also be purchased from biology suppliers)
Break an antibiotic capsule (here using Ampicillin)
and empty the contents in a clean petri-dish One
capsule will be enough for hundreds of disks Dispose of the
plastic shell and add a few drops
 water to the remaining powder Cut some filter
papers in small pieces and soak them in the antibiotic
solution Let the disks dry in a clean space You may
cover them with another filter paper to protect them
from dust Although they are known as antibiotic disks, you can
cut them in small squares. The reason that we use filter paper,
is that otherpapers often have starch and other polymers that
may affect the results of our experiments Filter
paper is pure cellulose fiber

Step 4:
Use the bacteria that you have grown in step 2 and prepare
dilution of bacteria.
1. Prepare 1 10 dilution of the sample To do this, take
2ml of the sample and blend it with 18ml of distilled water
2. Pipette 0.1ml of each dilution onto a Plates Count Agar (PCA)
plate
3. Take a glass hockey stick submersed in ethanol and run it
through a flame to sterilize it (Glass hockey stick is a glass rod
bent on one end like a hockey stick It is used to spread bacteria
on the surface agar plate You may use a steel spoon instead)
 4. Let it cool and use it to spread dilution around the plate
5.Do this on two plates for each of the five different dilutions
6. Place an antibiotic disk on the plate of dilution
7 Incubate the plate at 35 degrees Celsius for 24
hours and then count the bacterial colonies.
8. Take 3 nutrient agar plate and added 0.5ml of the solution on
each of plates
9. Leaving one plate without any antibiotics, placing
one antibiotic disk on the second plate and two
antibiotic disks on the third plate All plates were incubated for
48 hours (about 2 days).
OBSERVATION