ela) (1 Sue Hocking Frank Sochacki Mark Winterbottom LEARNINGPublished by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R ORL. ‘wwwpearsonschoolsandiecolleges.couk “Text© Pearson Education Limited 2015, cited by Priseila Goldby and Caroline Needham Designed by Elizabeth Amous for Pearson Education Limited ‘Typeset by Tech Set Lid, Gateshead (Oniginalilustrtions © Pearson Education Limited 2015 Ilustrated by Tech-Set Lid, Gateshead and Peter Bull Art Stadio Cover design by Juice Creative Picture research by Alison Prior Cover photo © Alamy Images: Scott Camazine ‘The rights of Sue Hocking, Frank Sochacki and Mark Winterbottom to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, FFtst edition published 2008 ‘This edition published 2015 18171615, 19987654321 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘A catalogue record for ths books avallabe from the British Library ISBN 978 1 447 990796 Copyright notice Allright reserved. 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OCR thas not paid for the production of this resauree, nor daes OCR receive any royalties from is sale, For ‘more information about the endorsement process please visit the OCR website wwwoctorgiukAcknowledgements Pearson would like to thank Peter Kennedy fr is contribution tothe previous eition, “The publisher would like to thank the fllewing fr ther kind permission to reproduce their photographs (Key: b-botiom:; e-centre; Hef: exight: -top) Images: Chris Pearsall Lid, Finn Dale Iversen 178, GP Bowater 262, Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH 2930s Universal Images Group 293; Ardea: Jean Miche! Labat 289be; College of Physicians of Philadelphia: The image of Harry Eastlack is used by kind permission of The College of Physielans of Philadelphia. Photograph by Evi Numen. Copyright (2011) by The College of Physicians of Philadelphia 194, Corbis: Russe! Glenister289r; DK Images: Annabel Milne 88, Frank Greenaway 136, Spike Walker 218, Wil Heap 258tr; Fotolia.com: artush 8-9, Bleen Kumpf 286, Salorr 25a, Stefan Simmer 261bi Frank Sochacki: 257, 258b: Getty Images: Garry DeLong 210br, Javier Larrea 29u, Kellsta Images 29b1 ‘Martin Leigh 209tc Visuals Unlimited / Dr George Wilder 211tc Visuals United, Ine. / Ken Wagner 210u; Martyn F Chillmaid: 209%, 209cr, Nature Picture Library: Doug Allan 1091 Pearson Education Ltd: 70b! PhotoDisc: 281 (Figure 7} Press Association Images: Sunti Tchnia / AP 270, Science Photo Library Ltd: A.B Dowsett 281 (Figure 3), 1Sébr 228cr, Alex Rakosy. Custom Medical Stock Photo 280, Allied Pasicka 101, 163, Anthony Cooper 222, 269, Astid & Hanns Frieder Michler 158er Biodisc Visuals Unlimited 22, Biophoto Associates 34, 40,47, 152, 156, 175t, 175cl, 208, 238, Clause Nuridsany & Marie Perennou 73cl, CNRI 174, 228¢, 229, Courtesy of Crown Copyright Fera 233tr D. Philips 298, Darwin ‘Dale 98 99, David M. 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Gimenez Marin 148, Randy Moore, Visuals Unlimited 2116], Robert and Jean Pollock 228b1, Saturn Stils 75, Science Picture Co 34-85, 226br, 249, Science Vu, Visuals Unlimited 209c], SPI. / Dr Alexey Khodjakov 149tc, St Mary’s Hospital ‘Medical School 246, Steve Gachmeissner 144-145, 1711, 183, Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR 28d Thamas Derrinci: NCMIR 190t; Tom McHugh 120, Valerie Gils 206.207; Shutterstock.com: Aleksey Stanmer 278d), AlinaMD 254, bikeriderlondon 181, Doug Meek 264, FAUP 273, Galyna Andrushko 1094 hischneider 73b), Hung Chung Chih 268, Ian 2010 52, nfinityyy 254o, Jenper 424 .ubal Flarshaw 186, Kazakov ‘Maksim 168.109, kurhan 731, Lincoln Rogers 261be, Lodimup 192, maizhusein 266, Mariynova Anna 240, ‘Mayskyphoto 70ct Meinianbao 203, nto 281 (Figure 6), Nicx Photography 261 (Figure 4), optimare 53, Pan. Xunbin 189, RAJ CREATIONZS 226-227, Richard Grifin 281 (Figure 6), ita Kochmar Jeva 254cr Sebastian Kaulitz’ 45, Shilova Ekaterina 184-185, Steve Bower 286br, SuedeChen 2791, Tony Wear 190bi, Tyler Olson 206 ‘We are gratefl to the following for permission to reproduce copyright materia: Article on 922 adapted from ‘Problems with scientific research, How science goes wrong’, The Economist Article on 994 adapted from Gene editing comes of healthcare age, Francia Fimes, 16/02/2015 (Cookson,C), © The Financial Times Limited. All Rights Reserved; Article on p.122 adapted from "The Bite That Heals’, Nationa Geographic Magazine, February 2013 (Halland JS); Article en p. 40 adapted from ‘Red blood cell membrane disorders’. British Journal of Haematology, 104 Issue | (Published online on 8 February 2005), reproduced with permission of Blackwell Publishing Limited in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center, Article on p 164 adapted from ‘The Eastlack Skeleton’, The Batogst, Vol 61, no. 4, Aug/Sept, p46; Article on p.202 adapted from “Mutation in key gene allows Tibetans to thrive at high altitude’, Phe Guartian, 02/07/2010 (Cian O'Luanaigh), Guardian News and Media Limited 2010, Articie on 180 adapted from Asthma drugs stunt growth ~ but only by a centimetre © 2014 Reed Business Information ~ UK All sghts reserved. Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, Article on p248 adapted from ‘Male circumcision as a public health measure fo the prevention of HIV transmission Southern Afican Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2011;26(4\Past I) (Titus MJ, Moodley J) sricle on p272 adapted from ‘Gorilla “Paradise” Found: May Double World Numbers’ National Geographic News (05/08/2008 (Morrison D) Dan Morrison /National Geographic Creative; Artcie on p296 adapted from ‘A malfunction that spawns Frankenstein bugs, Alaancia! Times, 04/07/2014 (Ahuja, A), © The Financial ‘Times Limited, All Rights Reserved. ‘The investigation on page 110 ofthis book was adapted from a resource developed through the Science 4nd Plants for Schools (SAPS) programme. The original resource and others supporting biology education ‘can be downloaded for fee ftom the SAPS website: wwwsaps.orguk ‘We would lke to thank Richard Tateson for permission to redraw the image on page 242.How t0 use this book Module 1 Development of practical skills in bi La Aad iology Practical sills assessed in a written examination Planning Implementing an investigation ‘Analysis of data 1: Qualitative and quantitative data Analysis of data 2: Graphs valuation ‘Thinking Bigger: How science can go wrong Practice questions Module 2 Foundations in biology a4 244 24.2 2413 214 2415 21.6 24.7 22 224 22.2 22.3 22.4 225 22.6 22.7 22.8 2.2.9 2.2.10 22.4 2.2.12 Cell structure Microscopes Slides and photomicrographs Measuring objects seen with a light microscope ‘The ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells; membrane-bound organelles Other features of eukaryotic cells How organelles work together in cells Prokaryotte cells hinking Bigger Practice questions Biological molecules, Molecular bonding Properties of water Carbohydrates 1: Carbchycirates 2: Polysaccharides as energy stores. Carbohydrates 3: Polysaccharides as structural units Lipids t: Triglycerides Lipids 2: Phospholipids and cholesterol Proteins |: Amino acids Proteins 2: Protein structure and bonding Proteins 3: Fibrous and globular proteins Inorganic ions Practical biochemistry 1: Qualitative tests for biological 8 10 12 16 18 20 2 24 26 28 31 33 35 39 41 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 61 63 65 67 70 2 4 2.2.13 Practical biochemistry 2: Quantitative tests for 2.2.14 23 23.1 232 233 24 24.1 24.2 24.3 246 247 24.8 249 biological molecules Practical biochemistry 3: Chromatograpty gical molecules Thinking Bigger: E Practice questioi Nucleic acids DNA ~ deoxyribonucleic acid How DNA replicates How DNA codes for polypeptides ‘Thinking Bigger: The RNA revolution Practice q estions Enzy! Enzymes - biological catalysts Cofactors| ‘The mechanism of enzyme action ‘The effect of temperature on enzyme activity ‘The effect of pH on enzyme activity ‘The effect of substrate concentration on the rate of cenzyme-catalysed reactions ‘The effect of enzyme concentration on the rate of reaction Enzyme inhibitors Enzyme inhibition: poisons and medicinal drugs Thinking Bigger: The bite that heals P Biological membranes ‘The structure of cell membranes Diffusion across membranes Osmosis How substances cross membranes using active Factors affecting membrane structure and permeability Thinking Bigger: Red blood cell membrane disorders Practice questions Cell division, cell diversity and cell diffentiation ‘The cell cycle and its regulation Mitosis Meiosis Diversity in animal cells, Cell diversity in plants 76 78 20 82 a4 86 a9 91 94 96 98, 100 103 105 108 ut 3. 45. ur 120 322 124 126 128 131 133 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 153 155266 Aina ines '" Module 4 avr ha al gia 159 266 Oxgmaend rpm sqnereivstinas is: Biodiversity, evolution and 2.6.9 Stem cells and their potential uses 1sz disease ‘Thinking Bigger: The Eastlack skeleton 164 4.1 Communicable diseases 226 ae tea 414 Onions tha eauee dose 28 412 Tennison of pahogens ao 13 Plane defences gaint pthogens we Module 3 4.1.4 Primary defences again diease 24 Exchange and transport Secondary non-specific defences 27 ae ca connec soa, HG Mistgech sigs 29 4 1.1 Exchange surfaces 170 foe on 3.1.2 Mammalian gaseous exchange system 172 poreren. 3.1.3 Tissues in the gaseous exchange system. 174 Development and use of drug ted 3.1.4 Measuring lung volumes 176 Sa 248 3.1.5 Gas exchange in other organisms 178 ee 250 Thinking Bigger Atha 18042 _ Biodiversity 22 Pais uae {82 424 Biodweniy oa sang a 6 82 Transprtin animals 4129 sarminganinal ie S21 “Transport in ammals 186 Calculating biodiversity 260 $22 Blood yesels 188 What affects biodiversi 262 5.2.3 Exchange atthe capillaries 190 Reasons to maintain biodiversity 264 324 Thestuctieof the heart ae See ua 3.2.5 The cardiac cycle 194 Conservation ex situ 268 3.2.6 Coordination of the cardiac cycle 196 Protection of species and habitats 270 3.2.7 Transport of oxygen 198 ‘Thinking Bigger: Conservation 272 3.2.8 Transporting carbon dioxide 200 Practice questions 274 Thinking Bigger Living at tude an / es 325 Clesieaion and evan as Blois os 33. Transport plants 206 3.2 Peon snation ‘a0 Ga “Tanpavisnics 210 43-4 Canieaton and pylogeny 284 33.3. Movement of water tyough plans 212435 The eritmonfornerel cnet 286 334 Tepito bia 436 Varcion ae B55 ‘The werpiaianurn 21g 427 Appying sinc echgcs 20 3.3.6 The adaptations of plants to the availability of water 218 ‘Adaptation 292 TF cnn gap 43.9 Natal selection and evolution 204 ‘Thinking Bigger: Guttation 222, ‘Thinking Bigger: Antibiotics and resistance 296 Practice questions: 224 Practice questions 298 Maths ate 200 Drepesing or your evans 04 IndexHow to use this book Welcome to your OCR AS/A Level Biology A student book. In this book you will find a number of features, designed to support your learning. Chapter openers ach chaper stars by sein he contet for that chapters leering + Links to other areas of Biology are shown, including UB) ceu structure previous knowledge that is built on inthe chapter and fire learning that you will cover later in your + The All the maths I need checklist helps you to know what maths skills will e required Main content The main part of the chapter covers all of the points from the specification you need to learn. The text is supported by diagrams and photos thet will help you understand the concepts. Within each topic, you will find the following features: + Learning objectives at the beginning of each topic highlight what you need to know and understand + Key terms are shovm in bold and defined within the relevant topic for easy reference. + Worked examples show you how to work through questions, and how your calculations should be set + Investigations provide a summary of practical ‘experiments that explore key concepts, + Learning tips help you focus your learning and avoid common error. + Did you know? boxes feature interesting facts 10 help you remember the key concepts. At the end of each topic. you will find questions that cover what you have just learned, You can use these questions to help you check whether you have understood what you have just read, and ta identify anything that you need to lock at again,Thinking Bigger A the end of each chapter there is an opportunity to read and work with real-life research and writing about science, These sections will help you to ‘expand your knowledge and develop your own research and writing techniques. The questions «and tasks will help you to apply your knowledge to new contexts and to bring together different aspects of your learning from across the whole ‘course, The timeline atthe bottom of the spread highlights which other chapters of your book tae ‘material relates to ‘These spreads will give you opportunities to: + read real-life material that’s relevant to your course + analyse how scientists write + think critically and consider relevant issues ‘+ develop your own writing + understand how different aspects of your learning piece together Practice questions . At the end of each chap practice questions to testhow filly you Fave understood tne learning r there are Getting the most from your ActiveBook Your ActiveBook is the perfect way to personalise your learning as you progress through your OCR AS/A Level Biology A course. You can: + access your content online, anytime, anywhere + use the inbuilt highlighting and annotation tools to personalise the content and make it really relevant to you + search the content quickly. Highlight tool Use this to pick out key terms or topics so you are ready and prepared for revision Annotations tool Use this to add your own notes, for example, links to your wider reading, such as websites or other files. Or make a note to remind yourself about work that you need to do.Development of practical skills in biology PRACTICAL SKILLS ASSESSED IN A WRITTEN EXAMINATION In 2010 Ruth Brooks began an experiment. She was fed up with the snails that ate het Rowers and lettuces but didnot lke king them. Although scientists thought that snalls wee too simple to have a homing mechanism she wondered if they would return when moved. and aver what distance they could find thei way home. She ‘matked the soll’ shels with nal varnish and put them inte her netghbour’s Garden. She asked her neighbour to mark snails and these were released into Ruth's garden. Bath batches of snails returned to ther original gardens, showing a strong homing Instinct for distances up to 10 metres, with one srail traveling 100 metres. The conclusion was that if you want to move snails away from your garden put tem more than 100 metres away and ‘where there i ood fr them. The tetied special-needs teacher won the BEC Radio 4 amateur sclentist of the year competition ang a senior lecturer in ecology at Exeter Unversity, who was amazed by her findings, 6 conducting further research into this top to find the mechanism that snails have uti had a question and used scientific method tn investigate It Her findings are Ukely to lead to a reassessment of snal behaviour. The development of practical sil s 'undamental io the study and understanding of all aspects of Biology All the theories you wil lean, about how scientists tink ving organisms function and Interact with each other and their environments, are based upon practical investigations caried out by many Scientists over time. The theory and practical are intertwined, To unlock the puzzles of this chapter you need the fllowing maths: Perform arithmetic and numerical calculations fe. finding the arithmetic mean of data set replicates) Be able to use an appropriate number of significant figures Construct and interpret tables and oraphs Calculate the rate of change from a graph Understand the terms mean, median and mode ‘Make order of magnitude calculations Understand the principles of sampling Select and use an appropriate statistieal test, such as the chi squated test, Student coefcient, to analyse data Understand standard deviation and range Calculate percentage error esto conelavionWhat will | study later? Practical skills are embeded thoughout the content ‘of your course You wil eary out various practical, activities for each module and may develop different lls with each one, Some skills wil unde and be used fr many of the practical activities, You wil + use a microscope ta abserve, measure and make annotated and labelled drawings of specimens (as ana + camry out qualitative and quantitative assays biological matter, inclusing colonmetry (AS) matography or electrophoresis (AS) tors acting metabolic and ndluding enzy (sand animals + dissect animal and plant organs and observe , whole to see how they are adapte What have I studied before? environments (AS and AL) "= How to safely use a range of apparatus and equipment t fa Aistotion and abundance of organisms (AS lay and analyse to recognise imitations in experimental + investigate genetic inheritance patterns and us and suggest improvements bs the eh-squared test to analyse results (AS and AL) valuate the quality and usefulness of Mee we % What will | study in this ATE chapter? perimental design, incl ns ina practical o 3 variables and e ind quantita to inten dures and suggest im experimental designPlanning By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: » experimental design, including how to solve problems set in a practical context identification of variables that must be controlled, where appropriate evaluation that an experimental method is appropriate to meet the expected outcomes Solving problems in a practical context In your writzen examination you may be asked, as part of a particular question, how you could test a prediction or investigate a hypothesis or question. This is an exemple of solving problems ina practical context ‘Although this would be @ written paper and you would not have to actually carry out the investigation, you should suggest a procedure that is possible You should + be able to state which apparatus, equipment and techniques ‘would be needed for the proposed experiment. + apply your scientific knowledge relating to that topic. + identify and state the independent and dependent variables and ‘the variables that need ta be controlled + evaluate the proposed method to see if it would do the job and provide an answer to the question. Its quite likely that your proposed method would not provide a full answer and thats fine as long as you can recognise this and say so in your evaluation, An example of a problem Inthe growth ofthe single-celled green alga Peurococeus affected by its geographical position, eg, north-facing or south-facing aspect? What factors might influence is cistibution? Applying some biological knowledge to the problem Many living things are unevenly distribcted both between end within eccaysters, Many factors affect their distribution. These may be temperstue; habitat availablity of water, minerals ood space and mates ight intensity: poluion and competion with other organisms for those limited resources. Preurococcus isa single-celled, photosynthetic green alga. It looks like green dust and you see it on vertical surfaces such as walls, and tree trunks. You may notice that there i often more on the north-facing side of these surfaces or it may be more abundant in shaded and damp areas, ‘Asi is photosynthetic you might expect it 10 grow more where light intensity is greater. However, t may be damaged by high light intensities or high temperatures, or be susceptible 10 desiccation, in which case it would grow more in shaded areas. Ibis living and so wil need some water 10 Observations have indicated that Pleurococcus may have greater abundance and distribution in cooler areas wit lower light intensity, Le. in areas with a north-facing aspect. However, you cannct draw any conclusions unless you carry out some ‘systematic investigations, Experimental design Think about the type of data you will be collecting and whether you have a suitable statistical test for analysing that type of data ‘You would need to sample many trees indifferent locations. If you tied a piece of string, to form a transect, around the tree trunk {and then used a compass to find North, you could sample around the trunk, by placing mini quadrats (of sides 10cm) at intervals around the circumference waere the string is, and give a score of (0-10 for density of Pleurococeus (see topic 42.2 for more on using transects and quadtats for sampling pants). 1st position position 4 of quadrat position 3 — postion of quacrat Figure 1 Using transect and quadat to sample the censtes of Plerococcus arund 3 tee tink Variables + The independent variable (IV) is the aspect ~ whether north. south-, east- or west-facing tree surface. + ‘The dependent variable (DV) is the density of Peuracoocus resuiting from the different aspects, Variables to be controlled For example: + species of tree + ecosystem, whether a field or a wood + sampling height above ground «+ time of day/same day, so the weather and ambient temperature are the same + the same person to assess density, as itis subjective,‘What will you do with the data? You could visually represent the data by constructing a bar chart {for each tee, as shown in Figure 2 wo 4 Densiy 8 ; 5 : ; ; i i ; a_i wo 7234567 8 9 Oi2 Ne we) ge! oe BN ‘Sampling points around tree trunk ciroumference Figure 2 The eistnbution of Peurococeusarcund an oak tee in 2 fils, measured at noon dng une, Evaluation of the experimental method ‘There are limitations in this design: ‘+ Weheve only sampled one te, of one species, in one location, ‘+ We have not sampled any other vertical surfaces such as walls + We have not used data loggers that can be left for a period of lime to monitor the varying conditions + The data have not been analysed statistically to see i the difference between density on the north- and south-facing sides ‘of the trees is significant, + Even if we see a correlation between variables, for example light intensity and Plewrococcus distribution. correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean that one is causing the ‘other Further investigations Many experimental investigations lead to other questions that need investigating ‘The data here show that the distribution of Pleuracoceus is uneven but this does not solve the problem of what factors may cause this uneven distribution. We can make educated guesses, or hypotheses, as to the causes but we would need to investigate further. Those further investigations would also have to be evaluated. Could it be light intensity? We could use a light meter to ‘measure ight intensity at the sampling areas and also look at the data on the bar chart to see if there is ary pattern or correlation between light intensity and Pleurococeus distribution. Evaluation points: This would have to be done on the same day and at the same time of day, on a cloudy day and on a sunny day, and at the same sampling height. Could it be temperature? Light heats surfaces so we might ‘expect the temperature to be higher on the south-facing side of the tree trunk Evaluation points: We could measure the ‘temperature at each sampling area around the trunk at the same ‘sampling height. at the same time of day; this could be done for a cloudy day and a sunny day. Could it be water availability? We could tape test tubes around the tree trunk and leave them to collect rain water that runs off the tree trunk Evaluation points: Each tube would have to be left in place for the same length of time, at the same sampling height, and on the same days of the year ‘The tubes would have to be collected at the same time and covered to prevent evaporation, and then the water content measured by mass or volume. twee trunk modelling clay test tube = — gaffer tape rain water, collected Figure 3 Collecting the water runing of a tee bunk, Could it be predation or infection? Does anything, eat Pleuroceccus? Do any microorganisms infect Pleuracoceus? We ‘might need to research to find this out and then examine the tree or ils location to see if organisms might be infecting or eating Preurococeas Pleurococeusis a genus of algae and has been said to be the most abundant ocganism on the planet. If you use an artist's fie paint brush you can put a tle ofthe green powdery Pleuracaccus onto a micrescope slide and examine it under low {and high power. This fs @ eukaryotic organism what features ofits cell ‘structure can you identity? Oona eee are et oa ee © Wie sos equomet you wou need to cary out be Te octets eee ada Ore ereenetemetet tareaar Times, © 0a te posse sources of ents nts iesgationterror Implementing an investigation By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: » how t0 use a wide range of practical apparatus and techniques correctly appropriate units for measurement » presenting observations and data in an appropriate farmat Using practical apparatus and techniques correctly Throughout your couse, you wl carry out several practical investigations, some of which are outined inthis hook Bear in mind that our knowledge and ideas abun biology stm fom practical investigations that gather data to suppor: hypotheses that then become theories or models You will already have carried out practical investigations for GCSE Seience and will be familiar with a range of equipment and apparatus and be aware of how to use it safely In your written examination you may be asked about the use of apparatus in a practical investigation, Table 1 lists some of the apparatus and techniques that you should use during your course, as well as, sgiving examples of suitable practical activities and areas of the specification that they cover Light microscopy Propare and stain material for + Study structure of plant, animal Cells slides ‘and prokaryotic cells + Exchange and transport Use microscopes at a range of + Study stages of mitosis. + Homeostasis (& Level only) ‘magnifications + Observe plasmalysis and + Respiration (A Level only) Use 2 graticule and measure crenation + Photosynthesis (A Level only) specimens + Obseive a range of tissues Produce annotated scientific drawings Dissection ‘Safely use dissecting + Dissect mammalian heart + Homeostasis (A Level only) instruments + Dissect mammalian kidney + Exchange and transport Make annotated drawings + Dissect plant stems ‘Sampling techniques | + Sampling techniques used in | + Calculate species diversity + Biodiversity fieldwork + Ecosystems (A Level only) Make annotated scientific drawings Ratos of enzyme. Use a range of apparatus, + Effects of temperature, + Enymes controlled reactions to record quantitative pH, substrate and enzyme + Homeostasis (A Level only) measurements concentration on rate of Use 2 range of glassware to enzyme-catalysed reactions make serial dilutions Use data loggers to collect data ‘or use computer software t0 process data Colorimeter or Use colorimeter to record + Effect of temperature on + Enzymes potometer quantitative data membrane permeability + Membranes Use potometer + Rate of enzyme: catalysed + Exchange and transport + Investigate the factors affecting tate of transpiration ‘Table 1 Apparatus and techniques used in A Level Blo continued 2‘Chromatography or electrophoresis Thin layer or paper ‘chromatography to separate biological compounds + Gol electrophoresis, Analyse chlorophyll Separate and identify a mixture of amino acids Separate DNA fragments produced by treatment with restriction enzymes Biological molecules Photosynthesis (A Level only) Nucleic acids, genetic ‘manipulation Identify biological molecules suchas proteins, lids, sugars and starch Microbiological + Aseptic techniques + The effect of antibiotics on Cloning and biotechnology techniques + Use of solid and liquid culture microbial growth (A Level only) media Genetic manipulation (A Level + Colorimesry only) + Seral dilutions Transport into and out | + Serial dilutions ‘+ Investigate water potential of Cells of cells + Data logging plant tissue, such as potato Membranes, tuber Qualitative testing | + Use qualitative reagents to | «Test for biological molecules, Biological molecules Investigation using [+ Use ICT a data logger or ‘computer modelling Investigate plant and | + animal responses. Safe and ethical use of ‘organisms to measure plant and animal responses and physiological functions + Use spirometer Tnvestigate DNA structure using RasMol Investigate tropism in plants Investigate growth requirements of bacteria Measure human pulse rate at rest and after exercise Investigate breathing rate and oxygen uptake by human at rest and during exercise Use Drosophila for genetic investigations Nucleic acids Plant and animal responses (Level only) Exchange and transport Research skills + Use online sources and books to | « research topics + Correctly cite sources of information Investigate respiration in yeast. Saccharomyces cerevisiae All topic areas Table 1 Apparatus and techniques used in A Level Biology (continued Note thatthe types of practical activity iste are organised accorcing to the practical activity groups (PAGS) refered to in the specication Appropriate units for measurement in many practical investigations you ate likely tobe measuring something [cis important that you use the correct units andthe correct symbols or abbreviations Below are some of the units you may use, wit their correct symbols, eg kilograms (kg), metres (m). seconds (3), joules (J) ‘or kilojoules (kJ) for energy, kilopascals (kPa) for pressure or ‘water potential. However, the actual unit used depends on what you are measuring, If you are measuring the diameter of a cell, ‘micrometres (um) would be appropriate, but if measuring the height of a tree, metres would be a more appropriate unit. For certain studies involving energy flow through ecosystems, the ‘units might be gigajoules per hectare per year (GJ ha-! yr-), mega giga tera peta 10° 10% 107) 10? 10° 10 10° 10 10 Table 2 Preies denoting ones of magnitudePoin vouxnows | ‘A googol isthe name given toa number of order magnitude 10°, ‘which is 10 with 100 zetos after i ‘And 107s called a googolplex. Bath these names were invented byannine-year old child, the son ‘ola mathematician. us rH Abbrev kilometre kin mete ™ centimetre em oor millimetre mm ‘coat ‘micrometre um ‘0.000001 nanometre nim ‘0.000 000001 Table 3 Units for length: 81 base un kilometres squared km? 1000000 hectare ha 10000 centimetres squared em? ‘0.0001 millimetres squared mm (0.000 001 Table 4 Units for ate, cubic decimetres dm 1000 cubic centimetres — com? of mi 1 also called miluitres cubic milimetres — also called microlitres ‘001 Table 5 Units forvotume. Number of gram metric tonne t 1000000 kilogram ko 1000 ‘ram 9 1 milligram mg oor rmlerogram 15 ‘a.c00001 Table 6 Units for mass. Presenting your observations and data If you have been observing a structure, such as an organ or organ system via dissection, a labelled drawing isthe way to present this. When you study transport in animals (Chapter 3.2) you will ave the opportunity to dissect a mammalian heart and make annotated drawings of your observations. A labelled drawing is also the way to present observations of cells or tissues on a microscope slide In Chapter 2.1 you will have several opportunities to make such annotated drawings from microscope slides, inthe correct way. Besides drawings, figures, graphs and diagrams are also visual representations of observations and results of investigations, Topics 1.1.8 and 1.1.4 deal with different types of graphs and diagrams Tables (Often the best way to present inital data from an investigation isin a table ~ see Table 7 for an example: + The table must have a clear tile to infortn the reader + The table should be ruled off + The independent variable should be in the fist column (to the left side of the table). + Each column should heve an informative heading and the units for the quantities shown should be in the column heading, notin the column itself+ You can tabulate data that are not quantitative, such as colour of reagents used in tests and the inference (what it tells you) + If the data are quantitative, the same number of decimal places shoul be used forall the values {in one particular colurna + If replicates have been carried out there should be a column for each and a column for the calculated mean values. + The mean values should be calculated ta the same number of decimal places or to one more decimal place than those of the raw data values, but all the mean values in a column must be to the same number of decimal places. Temperature (°C | Rate of hydrolysis of starch (mg s*) | Mean rate of hydrolysis oe 10 uss | 1136 | 1143 1144 20 2190 2159 | 2201 21.83 30 3630 | 3600 | 3585 35:72 40 3654 | 3701 | 3697 3684 Table 7 Ratzs of gestion of starch bythe enzyme amylase, obtained from goat salva, at diferent tomiperatues, rrr co A student investigated the digestion of triglyceride tat by the eneyme lipase. He wanted to investigate the effect of increasing temperature onthe rate of reactian, The enzyme catalysed reaction produces fatty acids ‘and these lower the pH. This change in pH can be detected by an indicator, such as bromothymol blue, which Is blue at pH 7.6, green at pt 7.0 and yellow at pH 6. The time taken for the indicator to change to yellow can be measured and so the rate of digestion canbe determined, The student presented his data in a table as shawn below, become yell 1 2 3 454 476 468 10°C 287 295 305 15°C 210 208, 212 20°C 121 123 126 25°C 105 110 109 30°C 68 635 655 35°C @ see sways tn hic stb can be mooted © cate ie een ts of reaction fr these ata Caen ata 1000 ddd by in akan for Inleatar to become yell, (ese 1000/4 te tan 1/Fto clean the m0 ar the mbes seam a eee ceo ‘talon Saa nef 1/2105) © Present nse data na propery contacted al, © comers on re ange of tempwatres usedin ts neta © Whats te tions of hs ines ts of detrning te end poi of thet? Suggest how this investigation could be improved and include suggestions for other ways of measuring the fall inpunderstanding of: Analysis of data 1: Qualitative and quantitative data By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and processing, analysing and interpreting qualitative and quantitative experimental results use of appropriate mathematical skills for analysis of quantitative data © appropriate use of significant figures Licey DerTIONS ‘qualitative data: cata that does not involve quantity (numbers ‘quantitative data: data that does involve quantity (numbers significant figures: the digits of a number that have a meaning and contribute tothe numbers precision Processing, analysing and interpreting results When you carry out tests to indicate the presence of glucose, starch lipids or proteins (see topic 2.212 for more about these food test), you wil obtain qualitative data. You can represent such findings ina table and indicat the colour observed and the inference ~ ths tells. us winether a substance is present or not Benedict's reagent is used to teat for reducing sugar (if positive, reagent changes from blue to red wihen heated); iodine/KI solution tests for starch (if positive, a blue-black colour is seen); ethanol ceulsion test indicates the presence of lipids if a white emulsion is seen; biuret reagent indicates the presence of protein by @ purple/mauve colour “To make your data quantitative, for example to see how much glucose is in a particular drink, you would need to make up a Tange oF glicose solutions af known concentrations, using serial dilution. You would then carry out a Benedict’s test, keeping certain variables constant, such as + volume of reagent + volume of solution being tested + temperature at which heated + length of time for heating rr) cars eect ‘You would then see a range of colours showing the positive Benedict's test result, from brick red for a high concentration, through orange, yellow to green for a very low concentration, corresponding to specific concentrations of glucose in solution. ‘You could use these, or a photograph of them, as standards against which to compare the results of carrying out a Benedict's test on solutions of glucose of unknown concentration. Using mathematical skills to analyse quantitative data Think about the measurement of water uptake by a potometer 2s eserbedin Chapt 33 It measurements are taken at iferent ambient temperatures we can see the effect of temperture on the Tate of water uptake and therefore on te rate of transpiration ‘Ambient Pree Ran cnn cl eet EY ekae onan) crear ic 10 125 | 130 | 135 | 130 oat 20 280 | 275 | 273 | 276 023 30 450 | 470 | 460 | 460 038 40 555 565 | 557 | 559 06 Table 2 Mean rte of water uptake (al) na leafy sycamore maple, Acer seudoplatanas shoot ina potameter, at eifferent ambient temperatures Calculating the volume of water taken up f you are told, for example, that the diameter of the bore of the capillary tube is 2.5 mm and the air bubble travelled 24mm in 10 minutes, you can calculate the rate of uptake of water in yl per minute or per second, bread blue black colourless | mauve contains starch and protein potato blue black colourless | mauve ‘contains starch and protein apple red brown colourless blue contains reducing sugar and protein ‘cheese blue brown white mauve Contains lipid and protein chicken blue brown white mauve contains lipid and protein ‘Table 4 Results of tosis cane out ona varoty of foods. 16Figure 1 Calculating se volume of water in a section of capil tube IF the diameter is 2.5 mm then the radius is 1.25 mm. indicates the length moved by the air bubble, so the space in tis, cylinder is the same as the volume of water taken up by the shoot ‘The formule for calculating the volume of 2 cylinder. Vis So the volume of water taken up by the shoot in 10 minutes is (8.142 x (1.25) 24) mm? 117.825 118 pl 1 Now to calculate rate of uptake, which is volume taken up per unit time. If 118 lis taken up in 10 minutes, then the rate of uptake is 118/10 = 118 pl min” You could also express this in terms of volume taken up per second, which would be 118/600 = 0.20 pl s~ Calculating a median value ‘Suppose you measure the lengths of the leaves on a branch of a shrub. Their measurements in men are: 62, 65, 75, 3, 95, 78, 77. 6B, 57, 98, 94, 65, 72, BO, 48, 71, 72,62 49, 81. ‘The arithmetic mean is 65.7 mm, ‘The range is from 48 to 83 mm. ‘There are 10 numbers from 48 to 66 and 10 numbers from 68 10.83, The median is therefore 67 (between 66 and 68). This is correct even though there are no leaves of 67 mm in the sample, Appropriate use of significant figures Insome cases we do not need a detailed answer or very precise number When you work out an answer on your calculator you do not need to express it to 10 decimal places 50 you round it off to a certain number of decimal places. [Another method i to round it off using significant (meaningful ‘Agures. From the column in Table 2 showing the rate of transpiration, in ‘the second row where the rate is 023, 2s the most significant Gigi because it tells you thatthe rate is about 0.2 1s“ The second number, 3 isthe next significant figure. It tells us that the rateis ster than 024s. This therefore gives @ more accurate and precise indication of the value of the rate calculated. Because this i a calculated valu, it can be expressed to one more decimal place than the values inthe other colurans that were ebtained by reading the apparatus and were therefore limited by the precision of the apparatus. The calculated values in ths column in Table 2 are all to two significant figures. ‘Asa general rule, the calculated values, in order to be significant, ccan be to one more decimal place than the values in the columns from which the calculation was made, ‘The following are not significant figures: leading zeros, tailing zeros and digits derived by calculation and giving several decimal pplaces, which therefore give far greeter precision than the original data or the instrument used for measurement. © 2215 toning to wo stan Agus iosarten (a) Lots 6 (oases sazt taiso (e) 6780000, © 120 investigation using a potometer the bubble o air raved 65m along the eaplary tube in 15 minutes. The dlameter ofthe bore ofthe caplary tbe was 2mm. Calculate the rate of water uptake by the plant in mms * tals" Suggest how you could adapt the use of the biuret test for protein to make it quantitativeunderstanding of: €@) Analysis of data 2: Graphs By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and » plotting and interpreting suitable graphs from experimental results ‘There each communicates information visually ‘a variety of graphs and each type has specific uses, but Ina written examination you may be given a table of data and be asked to graph those data, You may also be asked to: + make deductions from graphical data + draw conclusions from graphical data + evaluate the data or its presentation (see next topic) Line graphs Line graphs are used to see if there is any correlation between two variables where the data are continuous strong positive correlation weak positive correlation a W Ww strong negative correlation bv W Figure 1 amples of corelation between two variables + They involve a vertical y-axis and a horizontal x-axis forming + Each axis should have a suitable linear scale and be labelle with quantities and units + The independent variable (IV) is usually plotted along the x-axis and the dependent variable(DV) along the y-axis 18 + For biological data itis often best to join the plotting points with siaight lines. If you do this then the line should go through the centre of each plot. Sometimes a smooth line of best fit can be Grav that goes through or very near to the points. Whichever type of line is drawn, it should not be extrapolated, that i, it stiould not be extended outside of the minimum and maximum, vvalue plot points. PT ‘Aline ona graph is called a curve, even if tis a straight Line ‘When you draw a graph, make It large and make sure you use a suitable scale and label each ans. Take care to plot the pots accurately. Lop you Know ‘Sometimes wrong conclusions have been drawn by extrapolating biological data. Data on high doses of ionising radiation were colectes by physleists in the 1940s and 1950s and used to assess the sk 9 human health. When plotted and extrapolated they suggest that Low levels of radiation ae harm Figure 2). However, mare recent evidence suggests that lower levels of radiation are harmless (Figure 3). intercept used to estimate damage due to xlevel of ionising radiation Degree of damage to ‘human cells (extrapolation 0 Level of ionising radiation Figure 2 Predicted damage to human cells with increasing levels ot inising radiation. Degree of new data damage to suggest no, human cells damage by xlevel of radiation ° Level of ionising radiation Figure 3 Actual damage to hurran cells wth increasing levels of ionising radiation,More than one curve can be drawn on the same set of axes, so ‘comparisons can be made anda picture of what is happening dur- sng an investigation or observed phenomenon can be seen, Rates of photosynthesis and respiration (abitrary units) photosynthesis _zesiaion 00:00 1200 Time of day ~ 24 hour clock (hours) 2400 Figure 4 Graph showing the changes in ates at photosynthesis and respcetion ina small pond ove a 24 Nour pei duting May. + The rate of reaction can be calculated from the slope of a ‘curve showing the progress of the reaction over time, Product 120 Formation 200 during an €0- enzyme- 60: catalysed 49. reaction (mg) ‘Time (minutes) Figure 5 Calculating te rate ofan enzyme- catalysed reaction fom the slope ofaareph Scattergrams Also called scatter diagrams or scatter plots, scattergrams are used when investigating the relationship between two naturally changing variables. For example, several plots can be made shawing mean biood cholesterol level and death rates from heart disease and stroke in various countries, No line needs to be drawn, bur the pattern af the plots can show if there is any correlation Bar graphs Bar graplhs are used to investigate relaionships when the independent variable is categorical and the dependent variable is ‘continuous, eg. the concentration of Vitamin C (DV) in different fruit drinks (IV) + The bars should be of the same width and equally spaced. + If mean values are shown on the bars, the range bars can also be shown, +f the data sets being compared have been analysed statistically, the error bars can be showin. If there is overlap it indicates that any apparent difference is not significant. 45 40. Yield (ke) 3.5 30. 25 20: 15 10) os. with fertiliser without fertiliser Treament of tomato planta Figure 6 Comparison of yeld of tomatoes groun with and withovt fertiise, Err bats do not overlap, showing that the diference between these two data sats s significant Histograms Histograms can be used for showing quantitative data organised into classes, For example, if we measured the height of a large number of human adults we may categorise the data, for example those between 140 and 149.em and those between 150 and 159cm. The number of people within each class shows the frequency. The class or category that contains the greatest frequency is the mode. » fe do i a 9 = Yin io 120-180 Ho 180160 17080 16) 300 Leaf length (mm) Figure 7 Histogram showing requency of leat length in sweet chestnut. Which type of graph would you draw to display each of the following types of data? (Nae nerceocitt © 1001 cargo Hon eaye acy © 810 covet amen yes tbat © tect itty on at of hoses One @ sere ncdcreen ater cronEvaluation By the end of this topic, you should be able to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of: » how (0 evaluate results and draw conclustons. » the identification of anomalies in experimental measurements, » limitations in experimental procedures » the refining of experimental design by suggestion of improvements to the procedures and apparatus precision and accuracy of measurements and data, including margins of ertor, percentage errors ‘and uncertainties in apparatus ES ‘accuracy: how close a measured o calculated value Isto the tue value. ‘anomaly: result that does not fi the expected trend or pattern. Precision: the closeness of agreement between measured values ‘obtained by repeated measurements Evaluating results and drawing conclusions You may be shown data and asked to evaluate them or to comment on a conclusion drawn from the dara. For example, in Table | are data about changes in blood cholesterol levels. One group of patients was given cholest lowering drugs, called statins, Another group of patients within the same GP practice decided to ey to lower their blood chelesterol levels by taking more exercise and altering their diet eed ae [es0) enn ont e treatment | 6 months after Group A~ 6.36 (£1.58) 421 (40.19) treated with statins (n= 12) Group 8 — 5.95 (2134) 4.87 (21.60) treated with lifestyle change (n= 12) “able Blood ciolesteol levels of croups of patients in2 GP practice. Statins inhibit an enzyme in the liver from making cholesterol ‘The guidelines set by NICE (National instirute for Health and, Care Excellence) in 2008 stated that people should have 2 blood cholesterol level of 5.2 mmol dm~’ or less. In 2014 the guidelines were changed to 4.0mmol dm 20 What can we conclude from these data? «+ It would appear that statins are more effective at lowering, blood cholesterol level than a patient making lifestyle changes. + Lifestyle changes appear to lower blood cholesterol, although the improvement was not as marked as in the group taking statins, However, the SD of this group was greater after {treatment so some may not have shown any improvement + In group A the standard deviation, SD (indicating the variability of the data, or the size of its spread about the mean) ig much larger before treatment than after, which shows that there was quite a high range of blood cholesterol values among these patients before treatment, but their values showed a much narrower range (they were all closer to the mean value) after {ueatment. This indicates that most of their blood cholesteral levels were probably brought close to the new guideline levels, “+ However, we do not know if they suffered any side effects, ‘Some people suffer muscular pains when taking statins and these prevent them from exercising, which is another way of helping to lower blood cholesterol + Itis easy to monitor the dose of statins taken by each patient in group A, whereas lifestyle changes are harder to monitor as they depend on subjectivity of those making the changes. + Group A could have also made some lifestyle changes: if they are concerned about their health and willing to take statin, they may also decide to eat more fruit and vegetables and take re is no information here abaut the age, gender or family history of patients in each group + The two groups had different mean starting levels of blood cholesterol + The initial SD for group A is larger than for group B, so there may be more patients in group A with very high blood cholesterol levels, + These are small groups and this is only one study. It would hhave to be replicated before any valid conclusions could beIdentifying anomalies in data You have been trained to identify anomalies in data. These are results that do not fi the expected pattern, Seeing an anomaly can be an exciting moment, providing evidence that your expectation {is wrong and a scientific breakthrough could ke staring you in the face. On the other hand it could be due to a piece of grit in your detector or a leaky flask in your incubator. IF you are certain that an anomalous piece of data was produced due to a failure in the experimental procedure, you might be justified in removing it before analysing the data. However, you must never discard data simply because they do nat correspond with your ‘expectation. By repeating the experiment and amassing more data one of two things could happen. If the anomaly was the result of an experimental error or was simply a very unusual result from naturally-occurring variation it will ‘disappear’ as the repeat measurements produce a mean in line with expectation. On the other hand, i the anomaly was in fact telling you something surprising about the system you are investigating it wil be ‘confirmed by repeat observations and your Nobel Prize is just around the corner, Limitations in experimental procedures + Itis not always possible to control all extraneous variables. + Some investgetions would be unethical, such as deliberately damaging an area of children’s brains to study the effects on their development, + Results obtsined from studying a small population cannot be generalised tothe hole population + ‘The resolution of the instruments and equipment used may impose limitations + The degree of accuracy of measurements may lead to limitations, + Using a small sample size or having to few replicates is also a limtation, as iis dificult to see if the data ar reliable; therefore a large enough sample or enough replicates should be sed where possible. + Notleaving a reaction for long enough to filly complet wil give misleading data: therefore we should make sue that reactions are given long enough to complete + Notallowing reactants to reach the required temperature before ting thom together wil reduce waiiy, reactants should be placed in ther tubes. into a water bath reach the quired temperature before they are mixed + Some investigations that rely on questioning people or ‘observing them in particular situations may be limite, because ‘aly certain types of people will volunteer to take part or people will bnave differently winen they think they are being observed. + Lack of equipment to objectively measure something, such as, ‘a colour change, sa limitation as the observation is subjective and may change depending on the investigator + Limitations in equipment such as using a beaker of hot water fora waterbath; the investigation can be improved by using a thermostatically controlled water bath, with a thermometer to check the temperature, so as to maintain the desired. temperature throughout the reaction, Errors [Errors or experimental uncertainties arise because there are: + inadequacies and imperfections in experimental procedures + lapses of judgement by the experimenter + limits to resolution, precision or accuracy of measuring apparatus, Random errors due to judgement errors made by the experimenter are reduced when the procedure is repeated several times. Systematic errors may be inherent in the equipment and are repeated at every replicate. Hoviever ifthe percentage error is |knawn, a calculation can be done ta determine the margin of error aor ote ay (es aces eae erie ein os scrtt tan wn to mesure ecton tes of humans ‘ich ate and 038 drt, © 5001 adres, reemetr es wt aleaol ater than meter arsed fr salfey reasons, Toy ae pei ae have an inptesse esoluton of 2°. However tov Cairatancouldbe up 01 out. you sed one a oa themometrs tomate te tmpert water ah 52°C within wht ge woul ne el temperate De? © eis sty sin 8 singe tele oxygen gen of fom a we iluminates agit part. fr 5 minutes. is beter han Counting the bubbles oF nygen produced dung § minutes.‘change. HOW SCIENCE CAN GO WRONG Scientific reséarch has changed how we perceive the world, and the scientific method has evolved to try and prevent flavied research thar could misinform us. However, now it may itself need to HOW SCIENCE GOES WRONG ‘A:simple but powerful idea that underpins science: “trust but verify’, has generated a vast body of knowledge. Since its birth in the 17th century, modern seience has changed the world beyond recognition, and overwhelmingly for the better, Results should always be subject to challenge from experiment. However, success can breed complacency. There are many published academic studies that are the result of shoddy ‘experiments or poor analysis, Less than half the published research ‘on biotechnology can be replicated In the 1950s, following many suecessful applications of science during World War I, academic research was seen as important, and a few hundred thousand scientists were carrying out research, ‘Since then, the numbers have grown to 6-7 million uetive researchers, and there is ereat pressure on them to ‘publish or perish’. This overriding demand has led to a loss of self-polic ‘and quality control. Many journals will not print studies that Verify previous findings, so researchers see litte value. in terms ‘of advancing their careers, in replicating the studies of other seiemtsts. ‘ailures to support hypothesis are rarely offered for publication, and “negative count for only 14% of published studies, {down from 30% in 1990, However, in science, knowing what is falso is as important as knowing what is tee. The failure to ‘report failures means that other researchers waste money ancl time exploring blind alleys that have already been explored. It may also cost ives. In March 2006, six healthy young men volunteered 1 take part in a clinical tral for a new drug TGN1412 that had ‘not previously been given to humans. Within a day, all six were extremely unwell and in intensive eare, With heroic efforts on the part of medical personnel aver several weeks, the men all secovered, but lost fingers and toes. TGNI412 is an antibody molecule that attaches to a CD28 receptor on white blood cells, ‘ofthe immune system and interferes with the immune system in ways that are poorly understood. In 1996, a similar study using results PRR pa cc TTT ee SOI EP ITT P fheces Whore else wil | encounter these themes? ‘an antibody that attached to CD28 (as well as to CD3 and CD2) receptors, using one human subject, had similar results, but was not published. Had it been published them i Wve prevented the ordeal of the six volunteers in 2006, Even if flawed research does not always put people's lives at risk it squanders money and effort “The hallowed process of peer review may not be al tis eracked up tobe. A prominent medical journal ran research past other experts in the field, and they failed to Spot some deliberately inserted mistakes, ‘even though they knew that they were being tested. ‘deally, esearch protocols should be registered in advance to prevent fiddling with experimental design midstream, Trial data should also be open to others to inspect and test. The most enlightened journals are becoming less averse to publishing less interesting papers, and some are encouraging replication studies. Younger scientists have a better understanding of statistics, and their use in analysing data needs to be extended. Peer review needs to be tightened so that science can correct its own mistakes and continue to command respect, rather than create bariers to understanding by shoddy research. Sources (© Leader atch: How science soe wrong The Evaro 19 October 2013, 9. (© Goldscre, 8 (2012) Bod Pharma. Poa Ess, (© epuwenineracientit cominese08 During the 19th century. there were many pseudescientiic claims. such as clams by Sylvester Gratam, inventor of Graham crackers, that ketchup and mustad can cause insanity. Unfortunately, such pseedoscience stl ‘exists today One ‘celebrity’ nutritionist has ciaimed that dark gen leaves such as spinach are good for you. as they contain lots of chiorophyl. which is high in exygen and so will ave you more oxygen! She also says that ‘certain foods are good sources of digestive enzymes. Another nutrition Journalist has claimed that fructose is digested inthe liver.