INTRODUCTION TO TAPHONOMY
TAPHONOMIC AGENTS
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
- It is the scientific discipline that applies the methods of biological
anthropology to the collection and analysis of legal evidence.
- Biological profile: sex, ancestry, age, height.
* Forensic anthropologists usually come up with Skeletonized,
decomposing, burnt, or dismembered human remains.
* But mainly help in forensic cases with
FORENSIC QUESTIONS
1. WHO is the person represented?
o Individualization
2. HOW did that person die?
o Individualization through trauma-analysis
3. WHEN did that person die?
o Estimation of post-mortem interval through taphonomy
TAPHONOMY
- Study of changes in biological remains from the time of death
until their recovery and analysis.
* “Taphonomy is everything that happens to a body after death.”
* Standard aspect of forensic anthropology
INFORMATION
1. The environment.
* Terrestrial? Buried? Water?
2. Effects from nonhuman biological or environmental agencies
and modifications caused by human agencies.
* Actual modification of bones (NOT NORMAL); can be caused
by humans or non-humans.
3. Postmortem history of the remains.
* Decomposition process (specifically entomology)
4. To estimate the PMI.
EFFECT ON BONES
- Macro and micro alterations
- Present and missing skeletal elements
* *What’s missing may tell a story
* *(Inventory - the 1st thing done by anthropologist)
TIME
- The general class of what caused the effect. - Many crime scenes or potential crime scenes are on the order of
a) Human vs non-human (as agents) hours to days old before they are reported to and investigated by
* How do they affect the body? law enforcement.
b) Trauma (ante, peri, post)
* Traumas before, during, and after death * *Forensic anthropology concerns itself with a generally briefer
c) Recovery of remains. time frame than other disciplines of biological anthropology or
d) Handling of Remains archaeology
* Some bones are destroyed during recovery and * *20-30 days = remains already skeletonized (in PH)
handling by anthropologists.
e) Human vs non-human (as analogs) VARYING PMI (examples where PMI differs)
* AS BASIS - Remains such as those discovered in sealed homes.
- Remains hidden in more rural locations.
UNIFORMITARIANISM - Massive crime scenes such as the World Trade Center
- The Earth's sedimentary rocks were accumulated by the same - Mass burials investigated for evidence of war crimes.
processes of sediment deposition visible in contemporary rivers ANALYTICAL PROCESS
and seas.
* THE PROCESSES BEFORE STILL APPLY IN THE
PRESENT
* Bone-altering processes today are applied to the past.
TAPHONOMIC PROCESS
- How the bone became modified, such as trampling, sediment
agitation, or digestion.
* *Effect of sediment (i.e., gnawing)
FORENSIC TAPHONOMY
- The least-quantified analytical subfield of forensic anthropology
* It is hard to measure decomposition.
(Such as decomposition rate)
NEED FOR RESEARCH
- Lacks basic research in some areas.
* Especially regarding human (or other species acting as a
proxy) skeletal degradation across a range of environments
over prolonged periods.
- Lacks comprehensive comparison of common taphonomic
observations.
* Confusion may occur when making observations and
interpreting them.

- What is it?
- How old is it?
- From what context does it come?
NON-OSSEOUS
- No osseous remains can be cremains or replicas of human
remains.
* Are sometimes mistaken for bone.
* Can be a very useful source of taphonomic data within a given
jurisdiction and supply useful specimens for teaching.
TIME SINCE DEPOSITION
- Has some correlation with the location of the deposition since
some environments are unlikely to preserve remains long-term?
* Time since deposition has some correlation with the location
of deposition since some environments are unlikely to
preserve remains long-term.
* Taphonomic process depends on the environment.
CONTEXT
- Common contexts for recent remains: the cemetery. freshwater
or marine environments, or their preparation and use as teaching
specimens or trophies.
* *For the human remains that have been determined to have a
PMI less than the temporal limit for that jurisdiction, the
taphonomic analytical emphasis shifts to understanding the
context of the remains from the effects that the environment
caused
* *WHAT CAN WE INFER FROM THE FACTS
AVAILABLE
INFORMATION LOSS
- Susceptible to destructive processes
* WE LOSE INFORMATION, ONCE DECOMPOSITION
STARTS
* *Ex: pubic bones, midfacial area, epiphyses, metaphysis,
external rib-ends, DNA
INFORMATION GAIN
- Bones record their postmortem history by the alterations caused
to them.
* Ex: mineralization, surface cracking, marks from plant roots,
thermal alteration
CONTEXTUAL INFO
- Can help in the elimination of multiple scenarios.
* What forces have acted upon and altered those remains and
what it indicates about the history of those remains between
the time of death and the time of analysis?
” FOR THIS TO HAPPEN, THIS SHOULD’VE HAPPENED”
TEMPORAL INFO
- For the estimation of the PMI
* Important part of the identification process, since it may
greatly help narrow the range of possible identities for a given
set of remains.
* Integral to the establishment of the order of taphonomic
changes as they occur.
ALTERATIONS
- The presence of postmortem alterations to the bone, if
misdiagnosed as perimortem trauma, can result in serious legal
ramifications for that case.
* NATURAL ALTERATION - may include details of death
information of significance to law enforcement.
TAPHONOMIC SIGNATURE
- Some taphonomic suites of characteristics are very basic and
require little elaboration.
BONE DESTRUCTION AND ATTRITION
FORENSIC TAPHONOMY
- subfield of forensic anthropology
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
- skeletal remains are very important in the field of forensics, as
well as in archeological and paleontological sciences.
BONES
- Contain organic and inorganic materials that can be analyzed to
learn about past life.
* (paleo - mya; archeo - h/tya; forensics - days/months)
* Once the body decays and only the bones remain, these bones
can still survive for a long time depending on their
surroundings.
* The way the bone changes after death is called diagenesis and
can be affected by various factors (acidity of soil, disposition)
* *Relevant in forensic investigations
HISTOLOGY
- one tool used during the investigation.
- the study of tissues and cells using a microscope
- using histology, we can distinguish between changes due to
disease and those due to the post-death process.
- determine: species; age at death.
- Though the bone might look okay from the outside, it may have
undergone significant changes that can only be detected by
studying it under a microscope.
* a detailed understanding of these changes cannot only prevent
misinterpretations but also add valuable insights regarding the
sequence of events after death.
* A more detailed study of these changes could help improve
the identification of the early postmortem history of bones,
and lead to a more accurate estimate of PMI.
BONE TAPHONOMY
BIOEROSION
 - initial bane decay stage, patterns may reveal the initial burial
environment.
* Time during bones can be affected by microorganisms, such
as bacteria, fungi, and algae.
DIAGENESIS
- changes in the home's chemical and structural composition
changes. which can be driven by environmental conditions and
microorganisms present.
* Process is slow but may lead to complete bone mineralization.
* IT IS IMPORTANT AS IT CAN REVEAL THE
ENVIRONMENT AND PROCESSES AFFECTING THE
BONES, thus guiding preservation efforts, and aiding in the
interpretation of archeological findings.
THIN-SECTION ANALYSIS
1. The Oxford Histological Index (OHI)
* Used to semi-quantify and presence or absence of microbial
alteration in bone.
2. Bioerosion Index [BI]
* Developed by Turner-Walker
* Uses back-scattered electron-SEM and digital image
analysis to quantify microbial alteration.
* More precise than Oxford but more time-consuming and
only analyzes a small portion of the bone.
* Microscopic fissuring of the bone microstructure is hard to
quantify, as it is often irregularly spread across the bone,
and multiple causes lead to cracking.
* The number of micro-fissures in bone can be quantified as a
percentage of cracked and non-cracked bone basic structural
units.
* Other types of diagenetic change, such as the inclusion of
foreign material in the natural bone pores, infiltration of
foreign material into the bone matrix (common examples
are humic factors or metallic ions), or a decrease in natural
birefringence of the bone matrix.
BIOEROSION
* Degradation of bones by microbes
* An important process that is caused by a variety of organisms:
a) BACTERIAL ALTERATION
* As viewed in transversal thin sections of bone usually
originate from the vascular (Haversian) canals and proceed by
“packing” or filling up of osteons until no original
microstructure is left.
* This process usually starts early postmortem, suggesting that it
is initiated during putrefaction and that soil bacteria become
involved in later stages of decay.
* micro-alteration
b) FUNGAL ALTERATION
* The result of absorption of solubilized organic and mineral
bone components, where substances that attack bone are
present inside and outside the fungal membranes.
* The presence of fungal alteration of bone is a reliable indicator
of the presence of oxygen at the time of the alteration in the
burial environment.
c) AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
* Gives information regarding early taphonomic conditions that
influence the type and extent of bioerosion.
TAPHONOMIC SIGNATURES
- Bones degrade faster in acidic conditions and the presence of
water, while temperature modulates the speed of biochemical
reactions, thus influencing the decay rate.
* Taphonomy refers to the process that affects the organisms'
remains leading to fossilization.
* FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRESERVATION OF BONE:
soil pH; acidic; aeration
* Bone is a porous material, and, as such, soil components or
metals from artifacts can infiltrate the bone matrix
(infiltrations) as well as infill the natural bone pores
(inclusions)
 In some cases, infiltration of material like copper or
humic acids can contribute to the structural, if not
biomolecular, preservation of bone by inhibiting the
actions of microorganisms
* Determine local conditions and environment.
TEMPERATURE
- Extreme temperatures can alter the color of bone and cause
cracking and fragmentation.
- Bones can crack when frozen. and it could be caused by ice
expansion in the bone pores.
* It does not appear that freezing damage would impair
histological analysis of the sample, but it is also hard to
recognize, as the signature is similar to thermal alteration and
other diagenetic changes.
SWIFTERBANT
- Bone samples had undergone fungal alteration.
- No signs of bacterial alteration
- The local environment remained reducing and anoxic.
- Potential changes in the environment might pose further
preservation issues.
BODY FARM AT TENNESSEE
- Observed was the presence of adipocere within bone pores, which
decreased with an increase in postmortem interval (PMI)
- No microbial alteration was observed in these samples.
DENSITY
- Described as mass-to-volume ratio.
TRUE DENSITY – considers only the volume of the solid material
and excludes pore space.
BULK DENSITY – takes pore space into account.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY – a temperature-dependent measure of a
material's density compared to water.
- Has significant implications on taphonomic and forensic
processes?
* Bone density influences how well a bone can withstand
taphonomic processes.
* Usage of single-beam photon to measure the density of
different locations of bone.
* Different parts of bones have different densities or porosity
BONE FREQUENCIES
* How well a bone can survive.
- Categorizing skeletal parts and tallying the number of identified
specimens (NISP) per category
- Determine the minimum number of elements (MNE) per
category.
- MNE signifies the smallest possible number of bone parts that
can account for the NISP.
SURVIVORSHIP
* What bone survives
- Minimum number of animal units (MAU)
- Bone—Bone-destruction graph
% survivorship = MAU (part) / Max observed MAU x 100
* ATTRITION - is determined by looking at the direct
relationship between bone density and its survival rate.
 * Bones with a higher specific gravity tend to be more frequent
in a collection than those with a lower specific gravity.
BONE SURVIVORSHIP
- Mineral density by circumference (BMDC)
- Differences were observed between right and left bone densities,
between male and female bone densities, and between African
American and Caucasian bone densities.
* Previous studies found a negative correlation between the
density of a bone and its movement in water flow (lower
density = bone moves less in water)
* Above is less replicable. More studies have been conducted
with the usage of photon absorptiometry to measure the
density of various sites of the bones.
CROW CREEK
- Remains of about 500 massacred American Indians from the
fourteenth century
- Other factors such as carnivore gnawing and differential recovery
(bias in the recovery of certain parts over others) might have also
affected the observed frequencies of skeletal parts.
INTRINSIC PROPERTIES
1) BONE SIZE
2) BONE SHAPE
3) POROSITY
* Could be a better predictor of skeletal preservation quality.
INCONSISTENCIES
- Long bones with unfused epiphyses tend not to survive bone-
gnawing carnivores as well as those with fused epiphyses.
- Subsequent research has shown inconsistent relationships
between bone density and ontogenetic age.
MORE RESEARCH
- Deeper understanding of the temporal sequence of decay
processes.
- Importance of a multivariate approach in modern taphonomic
research, considering factors such as bone size, shape, porosity,
and associated soft tissue.
- The critical role of scientific rigor, meticulous data collection, and
thoughtful analysis in advancing our knowledge in taphonomy.
DECOMPOSITION RESEARCH
- Vertebrates have significant ecological effects when they * DIFFERENT RATES OF AUTOLYSIS ARE OBSERVED
decompose. DUE TO VARYING METABOLIC ACTIVITIES AND
* Vertebrates have significant biological effects when they LYSOSOME COUNTS ACROSS CELLS
decompose.
* Their decomposition results in a nutrient-rich hotspot that
supports a diverse ecological community, including
scavengers and microbes. --- called NECROBIOME
* Understanding how carrion and human bodies decompose is
important for archeology and forensic anthropology as it
answers the questions WHEN, WHERE, HOW
- Animal proxies have their advantages in controlled lab
experiments but may not perfectly represent human
decomposition.
- Human-focused research facilities can provide more accurate
insights, but they face ethical, legal, and logistical hurdles.
* WILLIAM BASS – a key figure in forensic anthropology and
taphonomy, he established the 1st forensic anthropology
outdoor decomposition research facility in 1981.
AUTOLYSIS AND PUTREFACTION
AUTOLYSIS – Is the process where cells break down themselves after
death.
* Due to self-enzymatic digestion STAGES OF SOFT TISSUE DECOMPOSITION
* Starts within minutes after death, when cardiac arrest inhibits * Soft tissue decomposition presents key visual and biochemical
oxygen and blood circulation throughout the body and leads to changes that occur during decomposition.
a decline in intracellular pH. 1. Fresh
o Due to a loss in membrane integrity, cell lysosomes * *Decomposition starts upon death
release hydrolytic enzymes. Activated by the acidic * *Minimal maggot activity
cytoplasmic space, these enzymes continue to destroy * *Muscle relaxation; mortises
organelle and cell membranes as well as other 2. Early decomposition (Active Decay)
cellular structures and macromolecules. * *Begins 24hours after death
* *Autolysis and putrefaction
PUTREFACTION – Involves the decomposition of the body * *Color change of body due to enzymes
internally. * *Cadaver decomposition island/necrobiome
* Due to unchecked growth of symbiotic gut bacteria in an 3. Advanced Decomposition
aerobic environment after death * *Extensive mass loss due to continued insect activity
* Large macromolecules like lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and (maggots eat soft tissue)
carbohydrates are catabolized by bacterial fermentation * *Body takes on a deflated and wrinkled appearance with
leading to the production of organic acids and gases. initial skeletal exposure
* These gases cause bloating * *Flies are replaced by beetles
* AUTOLYSIS AND PUTREFACTION OCCUR 4. Skeletonization
SIMULTANEOUSLY * *More than 50% skeletal exposure
 * *Bones continue to interact with the environment through a
process called diagenesis leading to chemical or microbial
bone degradation.
5. Adipocere Formation and Mummification
* *Can occur at any point of soft tissue decomposition
* ADIPOCERE – aka grave wax results from the
hydrogenation of free fatty acids to saturated fats.
* MUMMIFICATION – typically occurs in dry environments
and extreme temperatures halting decomposition due to
moisture loss.
EXTRINSIC FACTORS
* Outside factors
1. Temperature
* The most important factor regulating decomposition rates
because it affects chemical and biological activities (enzyme
activity, reaction efficiency, insect activity, and microbial
activity)
* 13 degrees Celsius or lower = minimal insect activity
* GENERAL RULE: The rate of enzymatic activity increases
by 2-3x for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature.
2. Thermal energy units
* Researchers use accumulated degree days (ADD),
accumulated degree hours (ADH), and cumulative degree
hours (CDH) to account for and normalize the impact of
temperature in decomposition.
* These thermal energy units are often incorporated in forensic
entomology (insect development stages)
3. Insect activity
* 2nd most important rate-limiting factor
* Flies (Diptera) and beetles (Coleoptera) primarily responsible
for soft tissue decomposition
* The presence of insects can drastically accelerate the
decomposition rate.
4. Moisture
* The availability of water through humidity, precipitation, soil
moisture, and tissue moisture affects insect and microbial
activity.
* Certain bow flies are attracted to oviposition sites that are in
contact with water
* Moisture also affects microbial activity by mediating the
diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes within an
environment.
* Decomposition has also been measured via the assessment of
5. Microbial activity the percentage of mass loss over time using the UNIVERSAL
* Research in recent years has shown that microbes play a POSTMORTEM INTERVAL ESTIMATION MODEL by
significant role in decomposition. Vass which measures soft tissue decomposition (REGION
* Enteric bacteria are crucial in putrefactive processes in early SPECIFIC)
decomposition.
* Soil and microbes also contribute to decomposition. METHODS FOR ESTIMATING PMI
6. Additional factors 1. Microbiome
* i.e., presence of clothing, trauma, acidity, burial practices, * Reliable
seasonality, scavenging 2. Lipidomic
7. Burials * The crucial components of cell membranes and their
* Tend to slow down decomposition by moderating temperature degradation could potentially be used to estimate PMI.
changes and limiting scavenger access and insects. * Advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the study of
8. Decomposition location cellular lipids on a large scale.
* Indoor v. outdoor 3. Proteomics
* Large-scale study of proteins which also change predictably.
INTRINSIC FACTORS * Some proteins can survive extreme decomposition
1. Body size environments.
* Cadaver mass affects how fast decomposition is. 4. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
* Larger mass results in more concentration of various * The decomposition process produces VOCs which emit a
chemicals that can affect PMI. characteristic odor.
* Some found smaller pig carcasses have faster decomposition. * These VOCs can be profiled.
2. Sex
* WLANG MASYADONG EFFCT SA DECOMPOSITON DNA IN SKELETAL REMAINS
3. Age - Crucial in both anthropological and forensic contexts
* LIMITED STUDY BECAUSE MOST BODY DONATIONS * ARCHEOLOGY: The analysis of DNA from skeletal
ARE FROM OLDER PEOPLE remains is crucial because DNA from bones and teeth can
4. Human microbiome offer insights into past individuals and populations
* Aging, and drug use (still under debate) but still have effects - When soft tissues are unrecognizable, the examination of skeletal
on decomposition rate. remains is often the only way to extract valuable information.
* Condition of DNA in skeletal remains
PMI * Human identification of DNA genetic analysis is an essential
1. Initial PMI estimation tool for positively identifying human skeletal remains. This
* Applied within 24-48hours – mortises. typically involves comparing a DNA profile from known
2. Insect colonization remains to an unknown profile.
* ADD, ADH, CDH
3. Soft tissue change
* Tends to be more qualitative than quantitative due to
inconsistencies. DNA
* TOTAL BODY SCORE - used to quantify soft tissue 1. Nuclear DNA (nucDNA)
decomposition across 3 regions (Head and neck, torso, and * Used in most forensic investigations because of its extensive
appendages. Has high interobserver reliability and is critiqued variability across populations and differentiating between
for flaws. individuals.
* TBS IS STILL MOST RELIABLE 2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
* Easy to acquire, can be geographically specific.
 3. Y-chromosome DNA * The type of DNA used in the examination can have A. ACIDIC SOIL (LOW PH)
* Inheritance pattern similar to mtDNA implications. - at pH levels lower than 5.5, aluminum and manganese can
* Beneficial in male-specific identification 7. Technological advances become highly available to the point of being toxic. At similarly
low pH levels, other elements like nitrogen, calcium,
DIAGENESIS OF DNA IN SKELETAL REMAINS COMPLEXITY OF DECOMPOSITION phosphorous, magnesium, and potassium become less available
* The molecular diagenesis of DNA in skeletal remains are - Complex interplay of biological and environmental factors in for absorption by plants.
changes that accumulate in DNA due to degradation, decomposition and DNA preservation B. SLIGHTLY ACIDIC TO NEUTRAL SOIL
modification, and interaction with the environment - Soft tissue decomposes relatively quickly under most conditions. - ideal soil conditions for most plants
(postmortem) - DNA in skeletal remains can be preserved for extended periods. C. ALKALINE SOIL (HIGH PH)
* This process starts immediately following cell death. - When the pH level of the soil is above 7, elements like iron, zinc,
a) Autolysis BURIED AND SURFACE REMAINS copper, boron, phosphorous, and manganese also become less
b) Strand breakage available for absorption by plants.
* Due to the autolytic process SOIL
c) Microbes in decomposition - The science of pedology (study of soil) is crucial to forensic SOIL DYNAMICS
d) Chemical modifications analysis. - soft tissue decomposition
* Hydrolytic and oxygenic damage could lead to DNA - soil characteristics (Buried bodies temporarily increase in acidity thus changing the
degradation. - soil formation soil environment)
- boot/glove taphonomy
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE DNA DEGRADATION 5 LAYERS (Offer protection; decreases possible disturbance; has resistance
1. Molecular taphonomy 1. O HORIZON – decomposing plant matter to bacterial decay)
* Different molecules degrade at different rates. 2. A HORIZON – organic-rich topsoil - boreal forests
3. AP SUBHORIZON – “Plow zone”, undergone plowing (Coniferous forests (pines, etc.) often have a highly acidic topsoil
* DNA degradation is related to bone degradation.
disturbance. with a much more benign subsoil)
2. PMI
4. B HORIZON - where base minerals accumulate (This process can lead to a “melted face”)
* Depositional profile is crucial in DNA preservation.
5. C HORIZON - less-altered parent material
* Humidity
6. R HORIZON - broken-up local bedrock
3. Depositional Environment PLANTS AND OTHER BIOLOGICAL INVASION
* Easier to acquire DNA from bones that came from colder DEPTH OF BURIAL - plant roots are attracted to bones.
environments than those from hotter environments. - actual depths can vary from 1.5 to 12 feet. - root etching
4. Geochemistry - expedient or temporary burial is typically only as deep as (Plant roots also may destroy bone through the contact of the
necessary. roots, leaving behind a pattern of surface damage in the cortical
RECOVERABLE DNA FROM SKELETAL REMAINS - A high-water table can result in poor preservation (water can bone known as root etching)
1. Processing techniques cause mechanical and chemical erosion on bones; and can (Patterns are typically meandering and branching, with a U-
* Heat-based methods were generally most effective in cause displacement) shaped profile to the individual surface scores)
preserving DNA. - fungi can invade the porous structure of bone.
SOIL PH (Can invade pores of bones, leaving a rough eroded surface)
2. Embalming - Preservation of bones is highly influenced by soil’s pH. - Termites can consume buried bones.
* Embalming fluids could degrade DNA. - (soil’s pH is most acidic in the topsoil, due to the leeching of base
3. Skeletal element ions, decomposing organic matter releasing organic acids and OTHER FACTORS
* Better preserved bones could give better DNA samples. carbon dioxide) - bioturbation
4. Bone type - Acidic soil corrosion often results in significant changes in bone (Displacement/shifting of bones caused by various species)
* Compact bone generally has more DNA than spongy bones. morphology, creating a scooped, irregular surface where there - soil staining
5. Teeth was once smooth cortical bone. (Bone color will take on the color of the medium where they are
* Teeth are excellent reservoirs of DNA (molars) - (High acidity, high temperature, and high humidity cause bone to deposited)
6. Area of the genome degrade faster) (Can indicate previous burial)
- adipocere formation
 (Byproduct of fat tissue decomposition) - ice burials - other burial characteristics such as the orientation of the grave,
(Presence can imply protected and limited oxygen) (Frozen environment) the burial patterns, and the relative location of the grave to other
- mass burials - bog burials landmarks can give insights into cultural and societal practices.
(Some taphonomic processes are slowed down and co-mingling) (Wetlands characterized by the accumulation of decomposing
- plowing plant remains also have the potential to preserve soft tissue long- BONE WEATHERING (not buried)
(Help unearth and locate shallow burials, but also has the term) - Long exposure to the atmosphere
potential to damage remains) - can help determine the bone’s origin and past locations.
(May overwrite those earlier taphonomic alterations and obscure CEMETERY REMAINS - essential for estimating the post-mortem interval (PMI)
the prior history of burial) - coffin environment - can vary based on the environment.
(Coffins undergo gradual breakdown; only provide initial
SPECIAL NATURAL BURIAL ENVIRONMENTS protection) MECHANISMS
- mummification - coffin wear - loss of organic content
(Localized destruction of skeleton due to contact with coffin) - loss of moisture
- warping - surface layer bleaching
(Pushing down of sediment due to collapsed coffin) - cracking
- staining (The processes of degradation can be likened to the principle of
fatigue in material science, where repeated stress leads to
AUTOPSY AND EMBALMING cracking and failure)
- frequently found in modern cemetery burials
- can occasionally result in damage to skeletal remains. WEATHERING STAGES
(EMBALMING – Humans practiced a variety of procedures and - based on the pattern of linear cracking and flaking of the cortical
used chemicals to prevent putrefaction) surface, fibrous texture formation, and eventual loss of bone
(Extremities decompose the fastest in embalmed bodies) structure
- can indicate the duration of surface exposure, regardless of
COFFIN HARDWARE environmental conditions.
- SIX MAJOR CATEGORIES
a) handles ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
b) thumbscrews and escutcheons - solar radiation
c) plates (Exposure to UV light = bleaching)
d) cap lifters - moisture
e) decorative studs and white metal screws (Slows down weathering process)
f) tacks - heating and cooling
- crucial in determining the age of burials. (Bones experience repeated contraction and expansion causing
- viewing windows damage)
- iron coffins - freezing and thawing
(CONTEXT-DEPENDENT)
(Said hardware may be the only one remaining when the coffin MORE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
wood degraded) - mineral crystallization
(Caused by the formation and expansion of crystals within the
OTHER ARTIFACTS bone structure)
- clothing remnants such as buttons and other fasteners can provide - groundwater infiltration
clues about the period of burial (based on the materials used) - coffin burial
- Ceremonial offerings can be indicative of cultural or ethnic - terrestrial surface exposure
affiliations.
- burial fabrics and cushion fillings can provide information about PMI
burial practices. - macroenvironment
 - microenvironment
- weathering alterations need to be distinguished from other forms
of taphonomic alteration.
DIVERSE INFLUENCES
- Environmental variables can greatly influence the decomposition
and weathering of bones.
- continued research to understand the complex processes better.
TAPHONOMIC CHANGES AND ALTERATIONS
COLORS
- bone staining and color changes
- documenting bone color can be done using the Munsell Color
chart.
- similar color changes can be caused by different taphonomic
processes.
(Can hint at the post-depositional environment allowing for the
reconstruction of the conditions of which it was found)
YELLOWISH WHITE to YELLOWISH BROWN - fresh
unstained bone due to the presence of lipids and other bodily
fluids)
(HEMOLYSIS or the breakdown of red blood cells can cause
areas of the bone to turn a dark reddish-brown color)
(DECOMPOSITION STAINING - dark reddish gray)
BLEACHING AND STAINING
- sun bleaching
(Sun exposure; breaks down organic components such as blood,
lipids, and proteins that continue to the bone’s color)
(heat/fire exposure - a process called calcination; heat and fire can
destroy organic materials in and around bones leaving behind the
inorganic components, which are white)
- chemical staining
(Chemicals may be used to whiten or degrease bones, the bone
color lightens as more organic components are removed, however
overprocessing can risk damaging the bone’s structural integrity)
(HYDROCHLORIC ACID = dark brown staining)
(SODIUM HYDROXIDE = whiten bones)
- staining in skeletal teaching materials
- soil staining
(Often the result of burial or contact with the soil surface; the
color of the stain is dependent on the soil composition)
METAL STAINING
(CORROSION = natural destructive environmental process that (Color changes on thermally altered bones represent a gradient of
leads to the decay or waste of most metals and alloys) burn intensity and duration from the outside to the inside of the
- iron (result in metal staining) bone)
- copper (greenish) (Can give Information on location and position of body in fire)
- mercury - carbonization
(The black color of carbonized bone indicates contact with an
ORGANIC STAINING intense heat source)
(Green staining from moss and algae is the result of pigments) - calcination
- algae (Extremely fragile than carbonized bone)
(Determination of the postmortem submersion interval (PMSI))
- mosses
- root staining and etching COOKING
- decomposing plant material staining - physical changes to boiled bone include increased smoothness,
lightness in color, and translucency compared to fresh, uncooked
OTHER STAINING bone.
- mineral precipitates and other encrustations (Including techniques such as boiling and roasting; techniques
- clothing dyes, residues from mold, bacteria, insects, and fats designed to raise the temperature of soft tissue and bone which
within the bones, and substances linked to specific activities, such usually occur without actual combustion)
as war trophies or ritual uses. - Boiling also leads to some bone collagen transforming into
gelatin.
VALUABLE INFORMATION
- depositional significance COMMERCIAL CREMATION
- postmortem interval - standard cremation procedures
- post-cremation processing
FIRE - mass of cremated human remains (3.5% of body mass)
(The modification of bodies and bones with fire starts with soft - surgical implants and dental restorations
tissues which insulate the bones with layers including muscle,
connective tissue, adipose tissues, and skin) COMBUSTION
- color changes - usually follows a uniform, recognizable, and predictable pattern.
- The trunk and parts of the body closely associated with it survive
burning longer than the head and the rest of the appendicular
skeleton.
- The first areas to burn are usually the sternal ends and midshafts
of the external clavicles, the acromion process of the scapulae, the
sternum, the anterior ends, and the lower posterior external
surface of the ribs, and the vertebral spinous processes.
CONTEXT
- To differentiate between defects inflicted before thermal
alteration and those resulting from burning, the expert must
understand the dynamics of burning bodies as well as the context
of the remains.
- The context and condition of the bone and body at the time of
burning are essential factors when addressing complex questions
related to burning.
HEAT - bone floatation allows for rapid transport downstream without DIRECT MARINE ALTERATIONS TO BONE
- The state of the body significantly impacts burn patterns. leaving traces. - sediment and substrate abrasion
- The physical condition of bone changes at a different rate than - The two variables that govern bone transport in real fluvial - sediment embedding
that of soft tissues, which adds complexity to trauma analysis. systems are bone density and the bones' interaction with the - concretion
- fire can disguise or create “evidence” of trauma. riverbed. - bleaching and staining
- salt crystal formation
CHANGES FLUVIAL TAPHONOOMIC MIDIFICATIONS
- color classification often lacks detail and can be subjective. - bone smoothing, rounding, polish, scratches, gouges, frosting,
- challenges in distinguishing antemortem injuries, perimortem pitting, denting, chipping, grooves, cracking, and notches
injuries, and post-mortem damage in the context of healing - acid etching
altered bones. - bone degradation ADHERING MARINE TAXA
- necessary for more detailed research and better classification - discoloration - algae and kelp
methods to improve the accuracy and usefulness of these - invertebrate consumption - Bryozoa
techniques in forensic investigations. - sediment and foraminifera impaction - barnacles
- mollusks
MARINE ENVIRONMENT ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES - coral
RIVERS - Voorhies groups, equivalent particle diameters, relative transport
- natural events, accidents, suicides, and criminal activities potentials, transport index, mobility numbers, and observing MARINE BIOEROSION
- Searching for evidence or remains in rivers is a complex and slow bones in preferred orientations. - microboring
process. - sheet flow can carry bones into rivers. - invertebrate grazing traces
- osteophagous crab traces
DECAY IN FLUVIAL SYSTEMS MARINE ENVIRONMENT - worm borings
- different due to the flowing nature of the water, different biota, - death at sea, sea burials, homicides with bodies disposed of in the - mollusk borings
physical impact, and the varying influence of temperature and ocean, and the potential for bodies to be carried from rivers into - sponge borings
seasonality the ocean.
- PMI indicators are invertebrate succession, algal succession, and - bodies decompose more slowly in water than on land. LARGE VERTEBRATE PREDATORS & SCAVENGERS
the sequence of body decay. - most of the body floating on the water’s surface is submerged. - can leave traces on human bones in the form of digestive
- different marine environments can lead to drastically different corrosion and tooth marks.
FULL BODY TRANSPORT rates of decomposition. - Traumatic lesions from shark attacks are often confined to the soft
- factors such as the body’s bulk density (including clothing or tissue.
attached objects) and the state of decay influence the rate and DECOMPOSITION AND SCAVENGING
manner of transport in a water body. - natural floatation, bloating, and water pressure ESTIMATION OF PMSI FROM BONE CHANGES
- bodies often get trapped upstream of objects such as woody - adipocere formation - marine abrasion stages
debris or rocks, or in pools and eddies behind such obstructions. - estimation of the postmortem submergence interval (PMSI) from - fractured bone
- the longer a body is missing, the farther downstream it could have decomposition scoring - windowing
traveled. - complete lack of adhering soft tissue
MARINE TRANSPORT - fat leaching and adipocere
ARTICULATED UNIT TRANSPORT - The slow decomposition rate of remains in marine environments
- articulated units often move more during high-flow events. and the impact of current can lead to long-distance transport of
- articulation seems to increase transportability. bodies.
- The shape and dryness of the units influence their transport - The distance traveled by floating bodies can be significant,
potential. dependent on the current and the absence of land to halt progress.
- interpretations should primarily rely on the context of recovery. - As decomposition progresses, extremities such as hands, wrists,
feet, ankles, and the head are lost first, followed by the lower and
ISOLATED BONE TRANSPORT upper limbs.