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Sacred hearts Sr. Sec. Public School

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Student Name
P.G.T Physics Teacher
Ansh Pratap Gangwar
Sanjeev Yadav
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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my physics teacher

Sanjeev Yadav for his sincere guidance and advice to complete my project
successfully. Also, I am thankful to him for providing such an interesting topic
for our physics project.

I am also grateful to my parents and friends for their constant support and help
throughout the project, without their encouragement and support this project
could not have been completed on time.
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Certificate
This is to certify that (student’s name) of class XII has completed his/her
(subject name) project titled (title of the project) under the guidance of (teacher’s
name) for the academic year (school year). The certified student has been
dedicated throughout his/her research and completed her/his work before the
given deadline without missing any important details from the project. It is also
certified that this project is the individual work of the student and can be
submitted for evaluation.

Teacher’s signature
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INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITORS
Capacitors are passive electronic components that store energy in the form of an
electrical charge1. They consist of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates
which are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated
either by air or by some form of a good insulating material1. This insulating layer,
commonly called the Dielectric, could be waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or
some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.

The ability of a capacitor to store charges is known as capacitance1. Capacitance is

measured in Farads, named after the famous British electrochemist, Michael
Faraday. The Farad represents the amount of charge stored per Volt of potential
difference.

Capacitors are used in many electrical circuits and have a wide range of
applications. They are used in digital circuits and as filters that prevent damage to
sensitive components and circuits caused by electric surges3. They are also used in
electric motors, flour mills, electric juicers, and other electrical instruments.

Capacitors are classified based on various aspects. They are categorized into two
types according to polarization: Polarized and Unpolarized1. According to
structure, capacitors are classified as Fixed Capacitors, Variable Capacitors, and
Trimmer Capacitors1. Different types of capacitors are manufactured in many
forms, styles, lengths, girths, and materials.
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TYPES OF CAPACITORS
1. Polarized Capacitors (Electrolytic Capacitors):
 Description: Polarized capacitors have a positive and a negative terminal.
They are commonly referred to as electrolytic capacitors.
 Usage: Primarily used in DC circuits due to their ability to achieve high
capacitive density.
Characteristics: Susceptible to damage if connected with the wrong polarity.
Unpolarized Capacitors:
Description: Unpolarized capacitors do not have a positive and negative
terminal.
 Usage: Preferred over polarized capacitors in applications where reverse
voltage is a concern. Suitable for both pure AC and DC circuits.
 Characteristics: Do not have a specific orientation and are not sensitive to
polarity.
2. Fixed Capacitors:
 Description: Fixed capacitors have a constant or fixed capacitance value.
 Usage: Used in circuits where a specific, unchanging capacitance value is
required.
 Characteristics: Capable of providing a stable capacitance value.
3. Variable Capacitors:
 Description: Variable capacitors have a capacitance value that can be
adjusted.
 Usage: Employed in circuits where variable capacitance values are needed.
 Characteristics: Can be tuned to different capacitance levels, offering
flexibility in circuit design.
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4. Trimmer Capacitors:
 Description: Trimmer capacitors have a capacitance value that can be fine-
tuned or adjusted.
 Usage: Used in circuits where a small range of capacitance values is
required, allowing for precise adjustments.
 Characteristics: Provide a limited range of adjustment compared to variable
capacitors.
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CAPACITANCE OF AN
ISOLATED SPHERICAL
CAPACITOR

Capacitance Of An Isolated Spherical Capacitor

The capacitance of an isolated spherical capacitor is given by the

formula: C = 4πϵ₀R

- C: Capacitance of the capacitor.

- R: Radius of the spherical conductor.

- ϵ₀: Permittivity of free space.

Factors Influencing Capacitance:

1. Geometry of the Capacitor:

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- The capacitance depends on the geometry of the capacitor, and for a spherical
capacitor, the "plates" are considered to be the surface of the sphere and the point
at infinity.

2. Surface Area of the Plates:

- Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the plates. In the case
of a spherical capacitor, this corresponds to the surface area of the sphere.

3. Distance Between the Plates: Capacitance is inversely proportional to the

distance between the plates. In the case of a spherical capacitor, the "distance"
between the plates is essentially the radius of the sphere.
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CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL
PLATE SPHERICAL CAPACITOR

Delving into the intricacies of capacitors, we explore the capacitance of a

specific configuration—the parallel plate spherical capacitor. Capacitors,
essential in the realm of electronics, serve as passive components designed
to store electrical energy in the form of an electric charge. This exploration
focuses on the capacitance exhibited by a parallel plate spherical capacitor,
shedding light on its structure, capacitance formula, and practical
applications.
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In the realm of capacitor configurations, the parallel plate spherical

capacitor stands out with its unique design. It comprises two concentric
spherical conductive shells, typically metal, separated by a dielectric
material. This dielectric material could range from air to various insulating
substances, mirroring the diverse materials employed in traditional
capacitors.

To comprehend the capacitance of a parallel plate spherical capacitor, it is

imperative to recognize the fundamental principle governing capacitors—
the ability to store charges, known as capacitance. Measured in farads,
named after the distinguished british electrochemist michael faraday,
capacitance represents the quantity of charge stored per volt of potential
difference.

The capacitance of a parallel plate spherical capacitor is derived from its

geometric and dielectric properties. The capacitance (c) can be calculated
using the formula:

Where:

 c is the capacitance,

 ϵ is the permittivity of the dielectric material,

 r1 is the radius of the inner shell,

 r2 is the radius of the outer shell.

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This formula encapsulates the influence of the dielectric material and the
geometry of the capacitor on its capacitance. The larger the radii of the
shells and the permittivity of the dielectric, the higher the capacitance.

The parallel plate spherical capacitor finds application in various electronic

systems, particularly where a compact and efficient capacitor design is
essential. Its utilization extends to systems requiring precise control of
capacitance values, such as in radio frequency circuits, medical devices, and
sensors.

In conclusion, the capacitance of a parallel plate spherical capacitor

represents a nuanced interplay of geometric and dielectric factors.
Understanding the formula elucidates the pivotal role of each component in
shaping the capacitor's capacitance. As we navigate the intricacies of
capacitors, particularly the parallel plate spherical configuration.
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DIELECTRICS INSIGHTS:
NAVIGATING THE CAPACITOR
PHYSICS TERRAIN
Transitioning from the intricacies of the parallel plate spherical capacitor, our
exploration extends to the pivotal role of dielectric materials within capacitors.
Dielectrics, serving as insulating mediums between the conductive plates, play a
crucial role in shaping the capacitor's performance. This section delves into the role
of dielectric materials, highlighting their significance, and explores the various
types employed in capacitor construction.

The role of dielectric materials in capacitors is multifaceted. Primarily, these

materials facilitate the storage of electrical energy by insulating the conductive
plates. Unlike conductors, dielectrics do not allow the flow of electric current;
instead, they permit the establishment of an electric field. This property is
fundamental to the functioning of capacitors, as it enables the accumulation of
charge on the plates without allowing a direct flow of electrons.

Dielectrics also contribute to the overall capacitance of a capacitor. The

permittivity of the dielectric material (ε in the formula) directly influences the
capacitance. Materials with higher permittivity enhance the ability of the capacitor
to store charge, resulting in increased capacitance. This property is exploited in
capacitor design to achieve specific performance characteristics.
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Various types of dielectric materials find application in capacitor construction,

each tailored to specific requirements. Common dielectric materials include waxed
paper, mica, ceramic, plastic, and specialized liquids or gels, as seen in electrolytic
capacitors. Each material possesses unique properties that impact the capacitor's
performance in terms of stability, tolerance, and efficiency.

Waxed paper dielectrics, for instance, offer stable performance and are often used
in applications where precision is essential. Mica dielectrics, known for their low
power loss and high dielectric strength, find applications in radio frequency
circuits. Ceramic dielectrics, characterized by their compact size and stability, are
commonly employed in compact electronic devices.

Plastic dielectrics, such as polyethylene and polyester, provide versatility in

capacitor design. Their use is prevalent in a range of electronic applications due to
their flexibility and insulation properties. Electrolytic capacitors, frequently
utilized in power supply circuits, employ liquid or gel dielectrics, often composed
of tantalum pentoxide or aluminum oxide.
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In essence, the choice of dielectric material profoundly influences the performance

and characteristics of a capacitor. Design considerations such as temperature
stability, voltage rating, and size constraints guide the selection of an appropriate
dielectric for a specific application.

So, dielectric materials are indispensable, intricately weaving efficiency into

capacitors by insulating plates and shaping capacitance in electronic systems.
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CALCULATING CAPACITANCE AND

FACTORS AFFECTING
Moving forward from the exploration of dielectric materials, our focus narrows
onto the intricate realm of capacitance calculation for parallel plate capacitors. This
section unveils a detailed explanation of the methodology behind determining
capacitance and delves into the factors that wield influence over this fundamental
electrical property.

Detailed Explanation of Capacitance Calculation:

Calculating capacitance for parallel plate capacitors involves a nuanced

understanding of their geometric and material characteristics. The formula that
governs this calculation is:

C = ε⋅A/D

Where:

 C represents capacitance,
 ε is the permittivity of the dielectric material,
 A denotes the surface area of one plate, and
 d is the separation between the plates.

This formula signifies that capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area
of the plates and the permittivity of the dielectric, while inversely proportional to
the separation between the plates. In essence, a larger surface area and permittivity,
coupled with a smaller separation, result in higher capacitance.
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Factors Affecting Capacitance:

 Plate Area (A): The larger the surface area of the plates, the higher the
capacitance. This is because a larger area allows for more charge storage.
 Distance Between Plates (d): Capacitance is inversely proportional to the
separation between the plates. Smaller distances lead to stronger electric
fields and higher capacitance.
 Permittivity (ε): The dielectric material's permittivity significantly influences
capacitance. Materials with higher permittivity enhance the ability to store
charge, thereby increasing capacitance.

Understanding these factors provides a comprehensive insight into how the design
and configuration of parallel plate capacitors impact their capacitance.

Innovative Insights:

 This meticulous understanding serves as a cornerstone for engineers and

scientists alike, guiding the precise calibration of capacitors for various
applications.
 In the dynamic landscape of electronic systems, where efficiency is
paramount, these insights empower the creation of capacitors tailored to
meet the specific demands of modern technology.

In conclusion, the journey through capacitance calculation for parallel plate

capacitors not only reveals the intricacies of the mathematical formula but also
underscores the critical influence of geometric and material considerations. As we
navigate this realm, the factors affecting capacitance serve as guiding principles,
shaping the efficiency and performance of capacitors in diverse electronic
applications.
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ENERGY STORED IN CAPACIOTR

Venturing into the intricacies of capacitors, unraveling the energy they hold
becomes paramount in understanding their functional significance. This
exploration will unveil the formulas and calculations governing energy storage
within capacitors, followed by a glimpse into real-world applications where this
stored energy manifests its practical utility.

Formulas and Calculations:

Energy Stored (U):

U = 1/2 * C * V^2

Where:

 U represents the energy stored,

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 C is the capacitance of the capacitor,

 V is the voltage across the capacitor.

This formula signifies that the energy stored in a capacitor is directly proportional
to the square of the voltage and the capacitance.

Real-world Applications:

 Flash Photography:
Capacitors, with their ability to store and discharge energy rapidly, serve as
the powerhouse behind the intense burst of light in flash photography,
capturing moments with precision.
 Defibrillators in Medical Devices:
In the realm of medical devices, particularly defibrillators, capacitors stand
as life-saving components. They store electrical energy and, when required,
release a controlled shock to restore normal heart rhythms, exemplifying
their critical role in healthcare.
 Electric Vehicles:
The energy storage systems of electric vehicles benefit from capacitors,
leveraging their capability to provide quick bursts of energy during
acceleration and efficiently capturing and redistributing energy during
braking.

Power Factor Correction in Industries:

 Industries harness the power of capacitors for power factor correction,

optimizing the efficiency of electrical systems and contributing to energy
conservation.
 Stabilizing Voltage in Electronics:
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 In the realm of electronics, capacitors play a pivotal role in stabilizing

voltage levels, ensuring a consistent and reliable power supply for seamless
device operation.
 Understanding the energy stored in capacitors transcends theoretical
knowledge, paving the way for practical applications that augment the
functionality and efficiency of diverse technological systems. From the
instantaneous brilliance of light in photography to the life-preserving
interventions in medical devices, capacitors, through their energy storage
prowess, continue to shape and elevate the technological landscape.

Exploring the realm of energy storage, capacitors emerge as vital components in

modern systems. Their unique ability to rapidly charge and discharge makes them
invaluable in applications demanding quick bursts of energy. This section delves
deeper into the role of capacitors in various energy storage systems and their
impact on enhancing efficiency.

Applications in Renewable Energy:

 Grid Stabilization:
Capacitors play a crucial role in stabilizing electrical grids powered by
renewable sources. They act as buffers, smoothing out fluctuations in energy
production, ensuring a consistent and reliable power supply.
 Energy Harvesting Devices:
Miniaturized capacitors find applications in energy harvesting devices,
capturing and storing energy from ambient sources such as vibrations,
sunlight, or radiofrequency signals.
 Advancements in Capacitor Technology:
Supercapacitors:
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The evolution of supercapacitors introduces a new era in energy storage.

With higher capacitance and faster charge/discharge cycles, supercapacitors
are revolutionizing fields like transportation and portable electronics.
 Graphene Capacitors:
Capacitors leveraging graphene technology exhibit enhanced conductivity
and lightweight properties, paving the way for innovations in aerospace and
wearable technology.
 Challenges and Future Prospects:
Energy Density Improvements:
 Researchers are actively working on enhancing the energy density of
capacitors, aiming to bridge the gap with traditional batteries and open new
possibilities in electric vehicles and portable electronics.
 Environmental Impact:
 As capacitor technology advances, considerations for sustainable and eco-
friendly materials become paramount, driving research towards
environmentally conscious energy storage solutions.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, capacitors, with their versatility and evolving technology, stand as

integral components in energy storage systems. From stabilizing renewable energy
grids to pushing the boundaries of innovation with supercapacitors and graphene
technology, capacitors continue to redefine the landscape of energy storage. As we
navigate the challenges and embrace advancements, capacitors remain at the
forefront of sustainable and efficient energy solutions.
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Charging and Discharging in a Parallel

Plate Capacitor
Exploring the dynamic processes within a parallel plate capacitor unveils the
intricate interplay of electric fields and stored energy during charging and
discharging. This section dissects these fundamental aspects, delving into the time
constants and equations that characterize these phenomena.

Processes of Charging:

Charging a parallel plate capacitor orchestrates the migration of electrons between

plates, creating an electric field as it connects to a voltage source. The charging
process follows an exponential growth, adhering to the formula:

V(t) = V0 * (1 - e^(-t / (RC)))

Where:

V(t) represents the voltage across the capacitor at time t,

V0 is the initial voltage,

R is the resistance in the circuit, and

C is the capacitance of the capacitor.

This exponential growth eventually reaches its peak as the capacitor becomes fully
charged.

Processes of Discharging:
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Discharging involves the controlled release of stored energy as electrons flow from
the charged plate to the discharged plate when the capacitor is connected to a
resistor. The discharging process follows a similar exponential decay, expressed by
the equaton:

V(t) = V0 * e^(-t / (RC))

Here, the voltage across the capacitor diminishes over time, approaching zero as
the stored energy dissipates through the resistor.

Time Constants and Insights:

The time constant (τ) plays a pivotal role, representing the time required for the
voltage across the capacitor to reach approximately 63.2% of its final value. It is
calculated as the product of resistance (R) and capacitance (C), i.e., τ = R * C.

Understanding these charging and discharging phenomena, along with their

associated time constants, provides profound insights into the temporal dynamics
of parallel plate capacitors. Whether orchestrating the controlled charge in
electronic circuits or gracefully releasing stored energy, capacitors, through their
charging and discharging processes, embody the essence of dynamic energy
management.
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Parallel Plate Capacitors in

Electronics Circuits: Unveiling Their
Crucial Role
Introduction:

Parallel plate capacitors, with their simplicity and effectiveness, serve as

fundamental components in various electronic circuits. This section elucidates their
applications, delving into examples where capacitors play a pivotal role, and
explores the configurations of capacitors in series and parallel.

Utilization in Electronic Circuits:

Parallel plate capacitors find extensive use in electronic circuits due to their ability
to store and release electrical energy rapidly. Here are some key areas where their
contributions are crucial:

Energy Storage in Power Supplies:

Capacitors are integral to power supply circuits, storing energy during periods of
low demand and releasing it during peak demand. This ensures a stable and
continuous power output to electronic devices.

Filtering and Smoothing:

In filter circuits, capacitors are employed to smooth out fluctuations in voltage,

resulting in a steady and constant output. This is particularly essential in audio
circuits to remove unwanted noise.

Timing Elements in Oscillators:

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Capacitors, in conjunction with resistors, determine the timing characteristics of

oscillators. They control the frequency of oscillation, influencing the overall
performance of electronic devices like timers and clock circuits.

Signal Coupling and Decoupling:

Capacitors facilitate the coupling and decoupling of signals in amplifiers. They

allow AC signals to pass while blocking DC components, ensuring that only the
desired part of the signal is amplified.

Energy Storage in Flash Circuits:

Flash circuits in cameras utilize capacitors to store energy temporarily. When a

photograph is taken, the stored energy is discharged rapidly to produce a bright
flash of light.

Examples of Crucial Capacitor Role:

Several electronic circuits heavily rely on capacitors for their proper functioning.
Here are illustrative examples:

Audio Crossover Networks:

Capacitors are used to split audio signals into different frequency ranges in
crossover networks, ensuring that the right frequencies are directed to the
appropriate speakers.

Tuned Circuits in Radios:

Capacitors, in combination with inductors, form tuned circuits in radio receivers.

These circuits select specific radio frequencies for reception, rejecting unwanted
frequencies.
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Filtering in Power Supplies:

Capacitors are employed in power supply filters to smooth the rectified AC

voltage, providing a steady DC output with minimal ripple.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel:

Understanding how capacitors behave in series and parallel configurations is

essential for effective circuit design:

Capacitors in Series:

When capacitors are connected in series, their overall capacitance decreases. The
reciprocal of the total capacitance (1/C_total) is the sum of the reciprocals of
individual capacitances (1/C_1 + 1/C_2 + ...).

Capacitors in Parallel:

Capacitors in parallel exhibit a cumulative effect, resulting in an overall

capacitance equal to the sum of individual capacitances (Ctotal = C1 + C2 + ...).
In conclusion, the versatile applications of parallel plate capacitors in electronic
circuits underscore their significance in modern electronics. Whether smoothing
voltage, controlling timing, or storing energy, capacitors play a crucial role in
shaping the functionality and efficiency of electronic devices.
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Capacitor in Series and Parallel :

Navigating Capacitive Realms
Exploring Connectivity:

Capacitors in Series:

Imagine a relay race where each runner represents a capacitor. When capacitors are
arranged in series, their collective effort resembles the relay team. However, in this
analogy, the baton is the charge, and the handoffs between runners represent the
transfer of charge from one capacitor to the next. This series arrangement,
analogous to stacking hurdles, introduces a unique challenge—the overall
capacitance decreases. It's akin to each hurdle demanding a more precise leap,
contributing to an effective reduction in the team's speed.

Capacitors in Parallel:

Contrastingly, envision multiple streams converging into a robust river. Capacitors

in parallel, like these streams, combine their individual flows. In this scenario, each
stream represents an individual capacitor contributing to the overall capacitance.
The parallel configuration fosters collaboration, with each capacitor sharing the
charge-carrying responsibilities. This collective effort results in an increase in
overall capacitance, akin to the intensified flow of a merged river.

Equivalent Capacitance Calculations:

In mathematical terms, the calculation of equivalent capacitance is a crucial aspect

of understanding the combined effect of capacitors.

Series:
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To find the total capacitance in series

You calculate it by adding the reciprocals of individual capacitances: "The total

capacitance in series is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of individual
capacitances.

Parallel:

To find the total capacitance in parallel (total, parallel)

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Advanced Concepts: Quantum Leaps into Capacitive Realms

As we delve into advanced concepts, the realm of quantum capacitance emerges.

At the nanoscale, where classical physics blurs, quantum mechanics takes the lead.
Materials like graphene exhibit quantum capacitance, adding complexity to the
capacitance equation.

Moreover, engineers explore metamaterials—engineered with unique properties. In

capacitors, tunable capacitance becomes a reality, opening doors to applications in
adaptive electronics.

Beyond the Horizon: Unveiling Possibilities

Capacitors, in series or parallel, are storytellers, weaving narratives of

connectivity. The journey from classical configurations to quantum and
metamaterial frontiers reflects the ceaseless pursuit of understanding capacitance.
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Unveiling the Capacitor's Veil: Beyond

the Basics
Embark on a mesmerizing journey into the advanced realms of capacitors, where
the nuances of non-ideal behavior, parasitic capacitance, and practical
considerations elevate our understanding.

Non-Ideal Behavior: The Dance of Imperfections

 Scientific Insight: Nobel laureate Peter Debye's work on dipole moments

illuminates the dance of non-ideal behavior, introducing complexities like
dielectric relaxation.
 Imperfections Explored: Delve into internal resistance, dielectric absorption,
and leakage currents, unraveling the subtle deviations that add depth to the
capacitor's performance.
 Parasitic Capacitance: The Uninvited Dance Partners
 Scientific Insights: Drawing from Michael Faraday's wisdom, explore how
parasitic capacitance emerges in unexpected places, turning circuit board
traces and neighboring components into intricate dance partners.
 Intriguing Connections: Analyze the consequences of parasitic capacitance,
learning to mitigate challenges and harness unexpected advantages.
 Practical Considerations: Navigating the Real-world Arena
 Scientific Wisdom: Guided by George Westinghouse's pragmatic approach,
address practical considerations with precision, considering voltage ratings,
temperature dependencies, and material characteristics.
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 Strategic Design: Channel the spirit of Nikola Tesla and Claude Shannon in
strategic design, ensuring capacitors align with the demands of real-world
applications.

Conclusion: The Symphony of Capacitors Unveiled

As this illuminating expedition concludes, the symphony of imperfections,

unexpected connections, and practical wisdom resonates. In the words of Albert
Einstein, "Imagination is more important than knowledge." Embrace the
imperfections, for within them lies the true beauty and potential for innovation in
the electrifying realm of capacitors.
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Captivating Capacitors: Pioneers of

Modern Technology
Dive into the heartbeat of modern technology as we explore the indispensable role
of capacitors, particularly the versatile parallel plate capacitor, in shaping the
landscape of innovation and industry.

Capacitors in Modern Technology and Industry: A Symbiotic Alliance

Synergy with Electronics: Witness the symbiotic dance of capacitors with

electronic devices, from the microprocessors in our gadgets to the intricate
circuitry of medical equipment. The parallel plate capacitor, with its simple yet
effective design, emerges as a linchpin in these technological symphonies.

Powering Progress: In industries, capacitors play a vital role in powering

machinery, regulating voltages, and ensuring a seamless flow of energy. Explore
how the parallel plate capacitor, with its efficiency and reliability, becomes the
silent force driving progress.

Emerging Trends and Advancements in Capacitor Technology: A Glimpse

into the Future

Quantum Capacitors: Channeling concepts from astrophysics, where the

boundaries of our understanding are constantly expanding, envision quantum
capacitors. These futuristic devices operate on quantum principles, offering
unparalleled efficiency and miniaturization.
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Metamaterial Capacitors: Inspired by the manipulation of light in astrophysical

phenomena, discover metamaterial capacitors. Engineered with unique properties,
they revolutionize energy storage, opening avenues in aerospace and beyond.

Parallel Plate Capacitors: The Unsung Heroes

Efficiency in Miniaturization: Marvel at how parallel plate capacitors, despite their

seemingly basic design, become unsung heroes in the world of miniaturization.
From microelectronics to nanotechnology, their simplicity belies their crucial role
in shrinking technological footprints.

Quantum Entanglement in Technology: Drawing parallels with quantum

entanglement, explore how advancements in capacitor technology foster
interconnected, synchronized systems, pushing the boundaries of what was once
deemed impossible.

Conclusion: The Cosmic Dance of Capacitors in Technology

As we conclude our cosmic journey into the realm of capacitors in technology,

witness the symphony of efficiency, innovation, and interconnectedness. The
parallel plate capacitor, standing as a beacon of reliability, continues to propel us
into a future where the lines between science fiction and reality blur, and
technology becomes the canvas for limitless possibilities.
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Bibliography
 Google

 Advanced Concepts of Theoretical

 Physic Chatgpt 4.0

 Bard ai

 Youtube

 Physics ncert class 12

 SL ARORA