CHECK POINT 2

1. Define functional group.

2. Pick out the functional groups present in the following compounds:
CH,OH, CH,CH,COOH, CH2CHO
series?
3. What is homologous
4. Pick out the homologues from the following compounds:
CH=CH2 CH,CH3, CH3OH, CH-CH, CaH OH, CHCH CHOH
5. Give IUPAC name of the carbon compound CH-CH-CH=CH

CH3

4.10 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

Some important chemical properties of carbon compounds (organic compounds) are as follows:

4.10.1 Combustion
Combustion is an act or instance of burning of a substance. Combustion is usually a rapid chemical
reaction which produces heat and usually light.
Combustion is basically an oxidation reaction
Combustible substances used to produce heat (or power) by burning are called fuels. Nearly, all solid,
liquid or gaseous fuels are made up of the compounds of carbon. For example,
1. Carbon in all its allotropic forms, burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide with release of heat
and light.
C(s)+ O2g) CO29) + Heat + Light
2. Natural gas, which is mainly methane, burns to give carbon dioxide and water.
CHg) +2029) CO2g) + 2H20g) + Heat + Light
3. Ordinary cooking gas (LPG) is normally a mixture of propane and butane or butane and isobutane. It
burns with a bluish flame producing a large amount of heat.
CgHg)+ 5020) 3CO2g) + 4H,Og) + Heat Bluish flame
Propane
CaH109)+ (13/2)029) 4CO2g) + 5H2Og) + Heat + Bluish flame
Butane or isobutane
4. Ethanol is a volatile and highly inflammable liquid as it catches fire readily. It burns with a blue flame.
CaHsOH) + 3020) 2CO29) + 3H,0g)+ Heat Bluish flame
You must have observed that usually some energy has to be applied to start a combustion reaction. This
can be simply striking a match or generating a spark. After
this, the reaction is self-sustaining, i.e., energy released from
the reaction itself, keeps it
KNoWLEDGE DESK
going Why do substances burn with or without flame?
Saturated hydrocarbons, generally, give a clean bluish In combustion reactions, tight is given out in the form
tlame whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons give a yellow of either glow or a flame. You must have observed
flame with a black smoke. that a candle or the LPG in gas stove burns with a
flame where coal or charcoal in an 'angithi just
For example, methane burns in air with bluish flame whereas glows
red and gives out heat without a flame. It is because
ethene and ethyne (unsaturated hydrocarbons) burn with a flame is produced only when vapourous and gaseous
of higher percentage of
yellow sooty flame. Thisis because
carbon in unsaturated hydrocarbons
substances burn. That is why, coal, charcoal and
wood when ignited, the volatile substances present
However, if the supply of air (and hence of oxygen) is vaporise and burn with a flame in the beginning and
limited, then incomplete combustion will take place and then they just glow red.
even saturated hydrocarbons will burn with a smoky flame.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 145

 ACTIVITy 4.1
smoky flame
Aim: To show that incomplete combustion leads to
Procedure
Light a Bunsen burner.
Adjust the air hole at the base and observe the flame.
Observations
with blue and non-smoky flame.
open, the gas in the burner burns
a
When the air hole is kept fully
.When the air hole is partly open, the gas burns with highly smoky flame.
Conclusion: Incomplete combustion in limited or insufficient supply of air leads to smoky flame.

The gas stove and kerosene stove used in our homes

KNOWLEDGE DESK
have tiny holes or inlets for air so that sufficient amount
of air or oxygen is available for complete combustion Formation of Coal and Petroleum
Coal is the remains of trees, ferns and other plants that
(or oxidation) of the fuel to produce a smokeless blue lived millions of years ago and got crushed and buried
flame. Sometimes, we observe that the LPG burns with a
sooty flame and the bottoms of the cooking vessels get into the earth perhaps due to earthquakes or volcanic
blackened. This shows that the air holes of the gas stove eruptions. They were pressed down by layers of the earth
and rocks and got slowly decayed into coal. Plants are
(or kerosene stove) are blocked and there is incomplete
storehouse of solar energy. Thus, when coal burns, the
combustion due to insufficient supply of air (or oxygen).
stored solar energy comes out as heat energy.
The unburnt carbon particles make the flame sooty and
Petroleum oil and natural gas are the remains of millions
blacken the bottom of a cooking vessel. It is, therefore,
of tiny marine plants and animals such as algae and
recommended to clean the holes or inlets regularly. plankton which when died, their bodies sank to the
seabed and were covered by silt. Under right conditions
4.10.2 Substitution Reactions of heat, temperature and bacteria, these organisms got
Saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes are quite unreactive converted into petroleum. Meanwhile, the silt was slowly
in the presence of most reagents. However, their compressed into rocks. The petroleum and gas seeped into
porous parts of the rocks and got trapped.
characteristic reactions are substitution reactions.
The mineralised remains of plants and animals are called
A substitution reaction is a
type of chemical reaction fossils. Because coal and petroleum are made out of
where an atom or a functional group of a molecule is the remains of dead plants and animals, they are called
replaced or substituted by another equivalent atom fossil fuels.
or a functional
group.
Halogenation, e.g, chlorination of alkanes in the presence of light is a substitution reaction.
For example, when a mixture of methane and chlorine is
is successively replaced by chlorine
exposed to diffused sunlight, hydrogen of methane
giving a number of products.
CH4 Diffused
Cl2 sunlight
Methane
+
CHCI
Chloromethane
HCI

CHCI +
Cl2 CHCl2
Dichloromethane
HCI

CH,Cl2 +
Cl2 CHCl3 + HCI
Trichloromethane
(Chloroform)
CHCl3 Cl2 CCl + HCI
Tetrachloromethane
(Carbon tetrachloride)
4.10.3 Addition Reactions
An addition reaction is a class of chemical reactions in which an atom or a
group of atoms is added
to a molecule to form a single bigger molecule.
Addition reactions are characteristic reactions of unsaturated
bond or triple bond. compounds, i.e., compounds having double
Thus, unsaturated hydrocarbons, i.e., alkenes and alkynes undergo addition reactions.
146 A SIMPLE STUDY OF
CHEMISTRY 10
 in the presence of catalysts like nickel,
For example, addition of hydrogen to alkenes and alkynes takes place
platinum or palladium and the product is a saturated hydrocarbon.
Ni
HC=CH
Ethene
+H2 CH3CH3
Ethane

H-C=C-H +H2 HC=CH2 +H a7 CH-CH

Ethene Ethane
Ethyne
called hydrogenation.
The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated compound is sometimes
from vegetable oils.
An important application of hydrogenation is to get vegetable ghee

Hydrogenation of Oils
used as
Vegetable oils such asmustard oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil, cotton seed oil, etc., are generally
cooking medium.
double bonds. Some
Chemically, oils are esters of unsaturated higher fatty acids, i.e., they contain-C=
of these oils do not have very agreeable smell and taste. To make oils more palatable,
into semi-solid mass called
'vanaspati' vegetable
or ghee. This is done by hydrogenation
of these converted
they are
oils. Hydrogen is passed in hot vegetable oil in the presence of finely divided nickel (a catalyst).

Vegetable oil H2g) Vegetable ghee

(Liquid) (Semi-solid)
Another important example of addition reaction is addition of water to alkenes. Ordinarily, water does not
when a
add directly but alkenes add water in the presence of dilute acids to form alcohols. For example,
mixture of ethene and steam is passed over phosphoric acid under pressure and at 573 K, ethanol is formed.

CH=CH + PO378 573 KK CHCH,OH

Addition of water to an alkene is called hydration of alkene.
Also,
CH=CH2 +H.OH CH-CHOH
Ethene Ethanol

4.10.4 Oxidation
) Combustion
Carbon compounds are easily oxidised on combustion. For example,

CHag)+202g) Combustion COg)+2H0g) + Heat

Combustion is uncontrolled oxidation of the compound.
Ethanol burns with a blue flame to form carbon
dioxide and water.
CHOH + 302 2C02 +3H,O
(i) Oxidation in the presence of an oxidising agent
We know that decrease in the proportion of hydrogen
or increase in the proportion of oxygen of a compound
is called its oxidation. Those substances which are
capable of removing hydrogen or adding oxygen
to
others are called oxidising agents.
Alkaline or acidic potassium permanganate (KMn0),
acidified potassium dichromate (K2Cr20,), hydrogen
used
peroxide (H202), ozone (O3), etc, are commonly
for the oxidation of carbon compou s.
For example, alkaline potassium permanganate
oxidises ethanol to ethanoic acid.
Alkaline KMnO CHCoOH
CHCH2OH [O] +
-
KNowLEDGE DESK
Test for Unsaturation
The following two qualitative tests are performed to
detect unsaturation, i.e., the presence of double bond
or triple bond in a compound.
1. Bromine Test. The organic compound is treated
with a small quantity of bromine either as aqueous
solution (called bromine water) or a solution in
carbon tetrachloride. The disappearance of orange-
brown colour of bromine shows that the compound
is unsaturated.
2. With Baeyer's Reagent. A dilute alkaline solution of
potassium permanganate (KMn0) is called Baeyers
reagent. The given organic compound is treated with
small quantity of Baeyer's reagent. If the pink colour
of the reagent gets decolourised, the compound has
double bond or triple bond.

Ethanoic acid
Ethanol

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 147

 ACTIVITY 4.2
Aim: To demonstrate the oxidation of ethanol by alkaline KMnO4
Procedure
Take about 2-3 mL of ethanol in a test tube.
Add 5% alkaline solution of
KMnO, drop-by-drop to ethanol and warm the test tube over the water bath.
Observation: The purple colour of
permanganate solution gets decoloured.
Conclusion: This is oxidation of ethanol
colour gets decolourised.
by KMnOg which itself gets reduced into colourless substances and hence, purple

If you continue
adding alkaline
all the ethanol has been
KMnOg, the colour does not disappear after sometime. This is because when
oxidised to ethanoic acid, the reaction stops and the
KMnO4 is no
longer used up in the reaction.
purple colour persists because

CHECK POINT 3
1. What is a substitution
reaction?
2. Which of the
following
hydrocarbons undergoes addition reaction, and why?
CaHe, CaHG CH4
3. What is combustion? Give two
4. What type of compounds
examples of important fuels.
generally burn with a smoky flame?

4.11 IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS

Many carbon compounds are invaluable to us. Most of the medicines,
etc., basically carbon compounds but, here
are
we shall
perfumes, paints, explosives, polymers,
compounds, ie., ethanol and ethanoic acid. study the properties of only two important organic
4.12 ETHANOL
C,H,OH: ETHYL ALCOHOL
HH
H- -OH H :.H
CaHOH H H H
Molecular formula Structural formula Lewis dot formula
Ethanol is also called grain alcohol or
drinking alcohol. Usually, ethanol is just called alcohol or spirit.
4.12.1 Physical Properties of Ethanol
Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a characteristic alcoholic smell and
Itis a volatile
liquid having a low burning taste.
I t is lighter boiling point of 78.37 C (353.37 K).
than water.
I t is miscible with water in all
of-OH group (like dissolvesproportions.
The high solubility of alcohol in water
is due to the
like). presence
100% of pure ethanol is called
absolute alcohol. Ethanol
spirit. containing about 5% water is called rectified
Ethanol itself is a good solvent.
Drinking pure alcohol may prove but deadly
intoxication and drunkenness. consumption of smaller quantities of ethyl alcohol causes

148 A SIMPLE STUDY OF

CHEMISTRY-10
4.12.2 Chemical Properties of Ethanol
1 . Neutral Character: Ethanol is neutralin character and therefore, it does not affect litmus solution.
2. Combustion: Ethanol is highly volatile and combustible liquid. It burns with smokeless blue flame.

-zHsOH(0+ 300) 2C029)+ 3H,O()+ Heat

Ethanol Air
It is, therefore, a cleaner fuel as it gives only carbon dioxide and water on burning with sufficient air
(oxygen). Therefore, the largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive.
3. Reaction with Sodium:

ACTIVITY 4.3
Aim: To study reaction of sodium with ethanol (Caution: Take teacher's help)
Procedure
Drop a small piece of dry sodium metal about the size of a couple of grains of rice, into ethanol (absolute alcohol)
in a dry test tube.
Observation: There is a brisk reaction with evolution of a colourless gas. The gas burns with a pop sound.
Conclusion: Sodium reacts with ethanol and evolves H2 gas.
The chemical equation of the reaction between ethanol and sodium is as follows:
2CHOH(0 2Na(s) 2CHsONa() +H29)
Ethanol Sodium ethoxide
In fact, alcohols react with other alkali metals like K, etc., and evolve hydrogen gas.
is as a test for alcohols (or alcoholic group).
This reaction used
4. Oxidation: The oxidation products obtained from ethanol on oxidation depend upon the reaction
conditions and the oxidising agent used.
(a) Partial oxidation: On oxidation with mild oxidising agents such as chromic anhydride (CrO) dissolved
in acetic acid (CH,COOH), the product of oxidation is ethanal commonlycalled acetaldehyde.
CaHOH O CrO, CHC0OH CH CHO + H20
Ethanol (Given by Ethanal
oxidising agent) (Acetaldehyde)
(b) Complete oxidation
(i) When warmed with a dilute alkaline solution of potassium permanganate (KMn04), ethanol
gets oxidised into ethanoic acid.
CHCHOH 2[0] CH COOH H20
Ethanol (Given by Ethanoic acid
KMnOa)
(i) Similarly, acidified potassium dichromate solution oxidises ethanol into ethanoic acid.
CH,CH2OH [O CH,COOH HO
change of ethanol to ethanoic acid is oxidation because it involves removal of
The
hydrogen
from or addition of oxygen to ethanol.
5. Dehydration to give Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
Dehydration means removal of water which is chemically bound to a substance and/or removal
of elements of water as H20 from a compound.
When ethyl alcohol is heated with excess of concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K, it undergoes
dehydration to give unsaturated hydrocarbon, i.e., ethene.
CaHsOH(0 +HSO(conc.) 443 K CaHsHSO HO
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl hydrogen-sulphate
CaHsHSO4 443 CH=CH2 HSO
Ethene

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 149

 as follows:
be represented
The overall reaction
can
conc. H,SO4,443 CH,= CH2
CHOH Ethene
-H,O agent
strong dehydrating
Ethanol
acts as a
and therefore, it of a
ethanoic acid in the presence
for water
Sulphuric acid has great
affinity reacts with
Esterification: Ethanol
Ethanoic Acid: ethanoate.
6. Reaction with form an ester
called ethyl
concentrated sulphuric
acid to
little

CH--OCzH,() HO()
HLO-GH,() conc. H,301,
CH-ËOH+ Ethyl ethanoate
Ethanoic acid Ethanol

ACTIVITY 4.4
acid
Aim: To study the reaction of ethanol with acetic Testtube
containing
Procedure drops of reaction
glacial acetic acid and few
Take a mixture of 1 ml ethanol, 1 mL mixture
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube.
some water (as shown
in the adjoining
P u t the test tube in a beaker containing
about 5 minutes.
figure) and warm oer the water bath for Water
beaker containing 50 mL water
Pour the contents of the test tube into another
and smel.
Observation: A sweet indicates the formation of an ester.
fruity smell
ester
Conclusion: The fruity smell occurs because of the formation of the
(ethyl ethanoate).

esterification.
The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is called
Common esters are sweet smelling or fruity smelling liquids. These are, therefore, used in making
perfumes and as flavouring agents.

4.12.3 Uses of Ethanol KNowLEDGE DESK

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol is a very useful organic compound.
Some important uses of ethanol are explained as follows:
1. As a fuel: Since ethanol burns with clear flame giving
a large amount of heat, therefore, it is used as a fuel.
The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor car fuel
and fuel additive. For example, gasoline (or petrol) sold
in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. It is
a clean fuel as it gives only harmless carbon dioxide
and water vapour as the combustion products on
burning in sufficient air (oxygen).
2. It is used in alcoholic drinks like whisky, rum, brandy.
beer and other liquors. For example, wine contains 10%
to 20% ethanol and beer contains about 6% ethanol.
3. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and is the most
common antibacterial hand sanitiser.
4. Ethanol is used in hospitals to sterilise wounds and syringes
5. Ethanoil is a good general purpose solvent and is
used as solvent in paints, varnishes, tinctures, markers,
perfumes.and deodorants. Tincture of iodine is a
solution of iodine in'ethyt alcohol.
Sugar cane plants are one of the most efficient
converters of sunlight into chemical energy. Sugar
cane juice is used to obtain sugar by the process
of crystallisation. One of the by-products of sugar
industry is a dark-brown liquid called molasses which
still contain about 30% uncrystallised sugar. Ethanol
is commercially produced by fermentation of cane
sugar present in molasses. The fermentation of sugar
into ethanol is one of the earliest biotechnologies
employed by humans. Fermentation is breaking
down of bigger complex molecules into smaller
simple molecules by the agency of enzymes
(biocatalysts). Fermentation of molasses into ethanol
is carried out in the presence of yeast at about
30°C
Yeast is the source of many enzymes
(biocatalysts)
ike invertase and zymase.
Ci2Ha201+ H0 CH20g +CgH,20s
(Sugar present Glucose Fructose
in molasses)
CH20 Zymase 2C,H,OH 2C02
(Glucose or
fructose)
 6. It is used in many healthcare and personal care products such as cough suppressant and mouthwashes.
7. It is used in spirit lamp, spirit level and thermometers.

4.12.4 Test for an Alcohol

An alcohol or the presence of alcoholic group(-OH group) can be tested by following tests:
1. Sodium metal test: Take the given organic compound in a dry test tube. Add a small dry piece of
sodium to it. If bubbles of hydrogen are produced, it indicates that the given substance is an alcohol
2. Ester formation test: Take small quantity of the organic compound in a test tube and to this, add
small quantity of glacial ethanoic acid andfew drops of concentrated sulphuric acid and warm. A fruity
smell due to the formation of an ester, indicates the presence of alcohol or alcoholic group.

Harmful Effects of Drinking Alcohol

As stated earlier, ethanol is a constituent of all wines and liquors as the intoxicating effects of ethano
consumption have been known since ancient times. Medically, about 30 ml (or one peg) of ethyl alcohol
has been recommended to heart patients. It is in fact a stimulant and gives extra energy. Therefore, alcoholic
drinks are very popular especially in cold countries. But its consumption is habit forming. When consumed
in large quantities, it tends to slow metabolic process and depresses the central nervous system. This results
in lack of coordination, mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of normal inhibitions and finally stupor. The
person's sense of judgement and timing and muscular coordination are seriously impaired. Therefore, drunken
driving leads to increased road accidents.
Heavy drinking over a long period of time causes damage to stomach, liver, heart, etc. The liver disease
known as cirrhosis caused by long-term ingestion of alcohol may lead to death.

Denaturation of Ethyl Alcohol

Unlike ethanol, intake of methanol (methyl alcohol) even in small quantity leads to dizziness, nausea, blindness
and ultimately death.
Wines and liquors are expensive as they are heavily taxed and are sources of income to governments.
But, ethanol is also used in large quantities as industrial solvent and in that case it is not heavily taxed. To
prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous
Substances like methanol pyridine and copper sulphate to it. This is made blue by adding a blue dye so that
it can be easily identified. This is called denatured alcohol. The process of making ethanol unfit for human
consumption is called denaturing of alcohol.

4.13 ETHANOIC ACID: CH COOH ACETIC ACID

H:O:
H--C-OH HC:C:Ö:H
CH COOH H H
Molecular formula Structural formula Lewis dot formula

Ethanoic acid belongs to the family of organic compounds called carboxylic acids. It is

commonly known as acetic acid. The name comes from the Latin word acetum which
means vinegar. Vinegar is a dilute 4-5% aqueous solution of acetic acid. The presence of
some other organic compounds gives vinegar the greyish colour, usual taste and flavour
and pickles.
Vinegar is used for preserving food, sausage
Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid, having sour taste and smell of vinegar. VINEGAR
The melting of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K, hence it often freezes during winter
point
in cold countries into an icy mass. Therefore, pure ethanoic acid is called glacial

ethanoic acid or glacial acetic acid.

Ethanoic acid is miscible with water. ICOMPLIMENIAMAOurebe

: A

CARBON'AND ITS COMPoUNDS 151

 Acid
4.13.1 Chemical Properties of Ethanoic
in nature. Therefore,
it turns blue litmus solution
. Acidic Character: Ethanoic acid is acidic
red.
.In fact,
all acids turn blue litmus solution
carboxylic

ACTIVITY 4.5
Aim: Comparative study of acidic character of organic acids and mineral acids
Procedure
Take about 2 mL of 1 M HO (mineral acid) and 2 mL of 1 M acetic acid (organic acid) In bwo separate small testht
Dip blue litmus paper strip in each test tube and observe.
Observation
Both turn blue litmus paper red showing that both are acidic in nature.
o again, take 2 ml. of each hydrochloric acld and acetic acid in two separate test tubes. Add a drop of ersal
indicator to each test tube and observe.
Observation: Hydrochloric acid gives red colour with universal indicator whereas acetic acid
Conclusion: This shows that
gives orange colour.
hydrochloric acid is stronger acid as compared to ethanoic acid.
This activity shows that
carboxylic or organic acids are weaker acids as compared to inorganic or mineral
This is because acids.
carboxylic acids are partially ionised in solution to give smaller number of
they are weak acids. On the other H"(aq) ions. So,
number of H(aq) ions in solution. hand, mineral acids are more or less completely ionised to give
So, they are strong acids. larqe
Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid
also reacts with sodium,
potassium, etc. and evolves hydrogen.
2CH,COONa + 2Na
CH,COONa +Hzg)
Ethanoic acid Sod. ethanoate
2. Reaction with a base: Like mineral
acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base like NaOH to form salt and
water

CH--OH() +
NaOH(a9)
3. Reaction with metal carbonates
Ethanoic acid
and
CH-C-ONa(aq)
Sodium ethanoate
+
H2O()
hydrogencarbonates: Let us
perform an activity to find it out.
ACTIVITY 4.6
Aim: To study reaction between ethanoic
Procedure acid and sodium
Set up the
carbonate
apparatus
shown in the
as
Take a
spatula
full of sodium figure.
and add 2 mL of dilute carbonate in the test tube
ethanoic acid.
Pass the gas evolved in the Thistle funnel
freshly prepared limewater.
Observation: A colourless and odourless
effervescence. When the gas is gas is evolved with
milky. So, the is gas
passed
carbon
into itlimewater,
dioxide. turns
Conclusion: Thus, ethanoic acid
Test tube
carbonate and decomposes sodium
evolves carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide gas
Ethanoic acld-
2CH--OH+
Ethanolc acid NaC03 2CH,COONa +
Test tube
Sodium
Sodium ethanoate H,0 +
COt carbonate Limewater

When the activity is repeated by

taking sodium
152
CHCOOH NaHCO3 hydrogencarbonate,
CHCoONa again
+
we get
get carbon
carbon dioxide gas.
a
A SIMPLE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY-10 HO +
CO2T
 and
evolve carbon dioxide
Thus, ethanoic acid decomposes carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to
forming a salt.
with alcohols: Esterification
4. Reaction Therefore,
form an ester is called esterification.
The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to
of a little concentrated sulphuric acid,
when ethanoic acid Is warmed with ethanol in the presence
sweet smeling ester ethyl ethanoate is formed.
called
CH--OH GHsOH conc.,501, CH-OCHs HO
Water
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
(Acetic acid) (Ethyl alcohol) (Ethyl acetate)
are used
The common esters are volatile liquids with a sweet smell or a fruity smell. Therefore, these esters
in making artificial flavours and essences.
Hydrolysis of Esters: Saponification
acid and alcohol.
An important reaction of esters is that they get hydrolysed to give back the parent
and
For example, when ethyl ethanoate is boiled with sodium hydroxide, then ethanoic acid (sodium salt)
ethanol are produced.
Heat CH COONa CaHsOH
CHCOOC2Hs NaOH
Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate Ethanol
Ethyl ethanoate

or CHCOOCHs H20 NaOH CH COOH C2HOH

Alkaline hydrolysis of esters is known as saponification because it is the basic reaction inthe productionofsoaps.

4.13.2 Uses of Ethanoic Acid

Some important uses and applications of ethanoic acid(acetic acid) are as follows:
1. Acetic or ethanoic acid in the form of vinegar is used as food and salad dressing. It is also used as a
preservative of sauces and pickles.
2. It is used in the manufacture of acetone and esters which are used in perfumes.
3. It is used in the preparation of dyes, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
4. Vinegar is popular household cleaner effective for killing most molds(moulds), bacteria and germs.

4.13.3 Test for Ethanoic Acid

The presence of carboxylic group or acidic group in organic compound is tested
an
by the following methods:
1. Litmus test: All acids turn blue litmus solution or paper red.
2. Decomposition of carbonates and bicarbonates: Acids decompose carbonates (e.g. NazCO3) and
hydrogencarbonates (e.g., NaHCO3) to evolve carbon dioxide which turns limewater milky. For example,
2CH,COOH + NaCO3 2CH;COONa + H0+ CO2g)
CHCOOH NaHCOg CHCoONa + HO+ CO2g)
Differences between Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid
TABLE 4.2
Ethanol Ethanoic Acid
1. Ethanol is a colourless liquid with characteristic alcoholic 1. Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with smell of vinegar.
smell.
2. Ethanol has burning taste. 2. Ethanoic acid has sour taste.
3. Ethanol has a boiling point of 351 K. It readily evaporates 3. Ethanoic acid has a boiling point of 391 K.
at room temperature.
4. It does not affect litmus. 4. It turns blue litmus red.
5. Ethanol has no reaction with sodium carbonate or sodium 5. Ethanoic acid gives brisk effervescence with
hydrogencarbonate. carbonate or sodium
sodium
hydrogencarbonate due to liberation
of COp
CARBON AND ITS COMPoUNDS 153
 compound A has the molecular
formula C2HgO. It is a constituent
Or wines. PROBLEM
AMPLE 4.5: A Acarbon
The compound on heating with alkaline potassium permanganate gets oxidised to give

another compound B which turns blue litmus solution red.

A. Write its chemical formula and chemical
name.
(a) ldentify compound
(6) Identify the compound B. Give its chemical formula and chemical name.

() ldentify functional group in the compounds A and B.

(o) write the chemical equation of the reaction of compound A with alkaline KMnOa
B from A.
e Name the type of reaction that takes place for the formation of compound
SOLUTION:
(a) AS the compound A is a constituent of wines, it should be ethyl alcohol or ethanol. The molecular
CzH0 also
Tormula to the chemical formula of ethanol, CzHsOH (or C2H;0). Thus, A is
corresponds
ethanol.
(b) Ethyl alcohol, when heated with alkaline potassium permanganate, gets oxidised to ethanoic acid
(acetic acid) which turns blue litmus red.
Q

CHCHOH+
Ethanol
2[0] Alk.KMnO4 Ethanoic
CHa--OH + H20
acid
Therefore, B is ethanoic acid, CH,COOH.
(c) The functional group in A is-OH, alcoholic group.
The functional group in B is-COOH, carboxylic acid group.
(d) CHCHOH 2[0] CH3COOH H 0
(From alk. KMnOa)
(e)When compound A, ie., ethanol (CH,CH2OH) changes into compound B, i.e., ethanoic acid (CH3COOH),
there is a decrease in the proportion of hydrogen and increase in the proportion of oxygen. Therefore,
conversion of A into B is oxidation reaction.

CHECK POINT 4
1. Write IUPAC name of HCOOH.
2. Name the succeeding homologue of propanol.
3. What is vinegar?
4. Give an example of esterification reaction?
5. Name the gas evolved when a carboxylic acid reacts with sodium
hydrogencarbonate.

4.14 SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Any substance which has cleansing action in water is called a detergent. There are
two types of detergents, i.e,
soapy and non-soapy. In common language, a soapy
is called synthetic detergent or just detergent.
detergent is just called a
soap and the non-soapy detergent
Soaps and detergents
clothes and cleaning dirty utensils. They are also constituents of
are used for
cleaning our body, washing our
shaving soaps and hair shampoos, etc.
4.14.1 Soaps
A soap is water-soluble sodium or potassium salt of a long chain
a
fatty acid) which has carboxylic acid (higher
cleansing properties in water. For example, sodium stearate
sodium palmitate (C1sH31COONa), etc. (C17H2sCOONa) and
As a soap is a salt of weak acid (carboxylic acid) and a
strong base (NaOH), it dissolves in water and solution
is basic in nature. Therefore, a soap solution turns red litmus blue.

154 A SIMPLE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY-10

 KNowLEDGE DESK
Preparation of Soap
Animal fats and vegetable oils are esters of higher fatty acids with qlycerol (a trihydric alcohol). When
by heating with NaOH, they form soaps. For
oils and fats are hydrolysed
example,
CH00CC17Has CH,OH
CHOOCCH35 +3NaOH 3Cq7Ha,COONa
Sodium stearate
CHOH
CH00CC17H3s
Stearin
(Soap) CHOH
Glycerol
(Olive oil)
As the reaction leads to the formation of a soap, it is called
saponification.
In actual practice, the oil or fat is taken in a
big iron pan. A strong aqueous solution of Na0H (about 20%) is added to it
with
constant stirring. On heating, quick reaction takes
place to form sodium salt (soap) and glycerol. In order to separate
glycerol,
a calculated amount of salt (sodium chloride) is added and the mixture is allowed to cool. The soap separates out and ises up
as a 5eparate layer. This process is called salting out soap. On setting, the soap layer can be cut in pieces or bars. Perfumes
can be added before the soap sets.

Cleansing Action of a Soap

Before discussing the cleansing action of soap, let us perform the following activity

ACTIVITY 4.7
Aim: To demonstrate the effect of a soap in dissolving of oil in water
Procedure
Take about 10 ml of water in two test tubes.
Add a drop of cooking oil to both the test tubes and label them as A and B.
To the test tube marked B, add few drops of soap solution.
Now, shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same period of time.
Leave the test tube undisturbed for some time and observe.
Observations
I n the test tube A, the oil and water separate out, i.e., oil does not dissolve in water.
I n the test tube B, the oil and water mix and do not separate out in separate layers.
Conclusion: Thus, the soap makes oil to mix in water.

Our body is constantly secreting certain oily and greasy substances through skin. The dust and dirt get attached
to these oily/greasy substances and hence our body and the clothes we wear, becomedirty Water as such cannot
remove dirt because oily and greasy substances to which dirt is attached, are not soluble in water.
As stated earlier, soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as stearic acid, palmitic acid
and oleic acid. When dissolved in water, the soap molecules ionise to give long chain carboxylate anion and
sodium/potassium cation. For example,

CH,(CH)eCoONa CH3(CH2)16COO +Na

Sodium stearate Carboxylate anion
(Soap)
It has long hydrocarbon chain called tail
The carboxylate anion is the active ion of the soap molecule.
which is hydrophobic (water-hating) and the charged-Co0 is the head of the chain and it is hydrophilic
(water-loving) in nature.

coo) Na
Tail Head

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 155

 chains have a unique orientation the
keeps the that hvd..
e s o a p is dissolved in water, these molecules in which hydrophobic carbon
part out of water. This is achieved by forming clusters of surtace of the cluster acdre in
the interior of the cluster and the ionic ends, i.e., the heads are on the
4.5(a). This formation is called micelle. The micelles stay
s
in solution as a
a colloidal dispersion colloidal dispersion
Fig.
of ion-ion repulsion.
because
the hydrocarbon tails of the anions are peane
when a soap is applied to the wet cloth or body, dirt are thus trapped into the interior of the
Olly/greasy stain. The oily/greasy stains with embedded icelle
as shown in Fig. 4.5(b).

Soap
molecule

-N Na
Na
Na
Na Na
Oily/greasy
stain with
Na attached dirt
Water
Flg. 4.5(a) Soap micelle (b) Soap micelle entraps oily/greasy stain

Thus, hydrophilic carboxylate anions (heads) make a hydrophilic surface around the stain and mae
oi/grease with attached dirt, water-soluble. The mechanical agitation like rubbing, squeezing, etc, dislodgesthe
oily/greasy layer from the cloth in the form of an emulsion which is readily washed away with rinse water
and the body or cloth gets cleaned. Thus,
soap makes oily and greasy dust particles soluble in water which
are then washed away with rinse water.
I t should be noted that micelle formation does not take
place when a soap is added to
organic solvents like ethanol because the hydrocarbon chains of soap molecules are soluble in
such solvents.
Soap and Hard Water
Pure water forms lather with a
soap readily. But, many times, available water does not
the soap readily. Thus,
depending upon the behaviour of water towards soap with
produce lather with
water can be classified into two respect to lather formation,
categories:
(a) Soft water: Water that produces lather with a
(b) Hard water: Water that does not
soap readily.
Hardness in water is due to the
produce
lather
with a soap readily.
presence of Ca2* and
form of their soluble salts Mg2* ions which are present in water in the
generally bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulphates.
ACTIVITY 4.8
Aim: To ldentify soft and hard water
Procedure
.Take 10 mL of distilled water (or
test tubes. rainwater) and 10 mL of hard
water from a tube well hand
Add few drops
of soap solution in each
or
pump) in separae
Shake the test tubes vigorously for an of these two test tubes.
foam formed in each case. equal perlod of time (say, 1 minute) and observe the amount of latheror
Observation
We observe good lather in case
A white precipitate (scum) and poorof distilled water.
lather
Conclusion: This shows that distilled water or s observed In case of
water from tube well
I f hard water is rainwater is soft and
or the hand pump.
not tube well or hand
hydrogencarbonate/ available in your locality, prepare some hard pump water is hard.
sulphate/chlorlde of magneslum water by dissolving
or calcium
In water. so me
156 A SIMPLE STUDY OF
CHEMISTRY-10
A soap does not form lather readily with hard water as the soap first reacts with Ca2 and Mgions
to form insoluble precipitate of calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids which float as white layer over
water. This layer is called soap scum.

Ca
Ca2 2RCOONa (RCO0),Ca+ 2Na
(Hard water) (Soap) (Scum)

Similarly
Mg2 +2RCOONa (RCOO)>Mg 2Na
(Hard water) (Soap) (Scum)

When all the Ca" and Mg* ions are removed, the soap will start forming lather.
Formation of scum results in the wastage of a soap.
The scum formed sticks to the cloth and hardens the fabric of the cloth and also discolours
the fabric.

4.14.2 DetergentsS
A detergent is a cleansing substance that acts similarly to a soap but is made from chemical compounds
rather than oils and fats.
Synthetic detergents or simply called detergents are called soapless soaps because they have similar molecular
structure and properties as soaps but do not contain the usual soaps.
But unlike a soap, a detergent can lather well even with hard water.

ACTIVITY 4.9
Aim: To show that a detergent forms lather with hard water
Procedure
Take about 10 mL of hard water in a test tube.
Add 5 drops of a detergent solution to it.
Shake the test tube vigorously.
Observation: A lot of lather or foam is formed quickly.
Conclusion: It shows that a detergent forms lather easily even with hard water.

A common detergent is sodium n-dodecyl sulphate. It is also named as sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) and
has the following formula and is a constituent of most shampoos.

CH-CH-CH-CH-CH-CH-CH;-CH-CH-CH-CH-CH2-0--ONa

Thus, the structure of most of the detergents is similar to that of soaps as the detergent molecule also has
two parts, i.e., a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic and a short ionic part which is hydrophilic.
he cleansing action of a detergent is similar to that of a soap.
Detergents do not form scum with hard water. Therefore, they work well even in hard water and form lather
readily.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 157

Differences between Soaps and Detergents table.
in the following
detergents are given
c e s b e t w e e n soaps and

TABLE 4.3 Differences between Soaps and Detergents

Detergents
Soaps a r e sodium salts of long cha
1. 1. Normally, detergents
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain
+ hydrogensulphates.
alkyl
For example,
fatty acids. For example, CH,(CH2)16COONa lauryl sulphate.)
CHCH)1SOgNa" (sodium
(sodium stearate).
2.
2. They are synthetic.
They are of natural origin. well even in hard water.
3. 3. Detergents work
They are not suitable for washing purposes in hard water Most detergents are health risk as they can cause damage
4. They are not health risk.
skin.
to eyes, mouth and

5. Most detergents are nonbiodegradable.

5. They are biodegradable.
6. Detergents have stronger cleansing action than soaps.
6. They have relatively weaker cleansing action

SUMMARY
Carborn is a versatile element that forms the basis of all living beings and many of things we use.
>Covalent bonds are formed by sharing of one or more electrons by the combining atoms, each contributing an equal
number of electrons for sharing.
Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and also with many other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur chlorine, etc.
Carbon also forms compounds containing double or triple bond between carbon atomsS.
Carbon forms a very large number of organic compounds because of its tetravalency and the property of catenation
that it exhibits.
The carbon chains in organic compounds may be straight, branched or closed chains(rings).
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that have only carbon and hydrogen.
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are called alkanes and have the general formula C,H2n+2
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing double bond are called alkenes and have the general formula C,Ha
Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing triple bond are called alkynes and have the general formula C,Han2
An alkyl group is formed by removing one hydrogen atom from an alkane. It has the general formula C,Hzn-1 and
is generally represented as-R.
A grOup of organic compounds having same functional group and therefore, similar chemical properties, is called
homologous series. Each successive member differs by-CH2 in the homologous series.

>The functional groups such as

alcoholic(-OH), aldehydic (-CHO), ketonic (C=0) and carboxylic
(-COOH), etc., impart characteristic properties to the carbon compounds that contain them.
>Carbon and its compounds are some of our major sources of fuels.
Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon compounds of much importance in our daily life.
Ethanol is neutral to litmus.
It gets oxidised to ethanoic acid with an oxidising agent such as alkaline
KMnO.
I t reacts with ethanoic acid and forms an ester, ethyl ethanoate. The reaction
is called esterification.
Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates and liberates
carbon dioxide.
Soaps and detergents are common
clearnsing agents used to clean body and cloth.
Soaps are soluble sodium and potassium salts of higher fatty acids.
Detergents are normally salts of long chain sulphonic acids.
The cleansing action of soaps and
detergents
in the molecule and this helps to emulsity the
is based on the
presence of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic group>
oily/greasy dust and hence, it removal by water.
Soaps do not work effectively with hard water due to formation of
Detergents can be used both with soft and hard water.
scum.

158 A SIMPLE 5TUDY OF CHEMISTRY-10