HEDBERG CONFERENCE:

The Future of Basin and Petroleum System Modeling

Alternative workflow for three- AUTHORS

dimensional basin modeling in Román Eugenio González ~ Ecopetrol,

Bogotá, Colombia; roman.gonzalez@
areas of structural complexity: ecopetrol.com.co
Román González received a B.Sc. in geology
Case study from the Middle from the Universidad Industrial de Santander
in 2001. Since then, he has been working as an

Magdalena Valley, Colombia exploration geologist. He joined Ecopetrol in

2009, where he has worked in several basins
in Colombia. His research interests are basin
Román Eugenio González, Carlos Orlando Suárez, analysis, with particular emphasis in the
Iván Camilo Higuera, and Luis Ernesto Rojas analysis of the thermal regime and petroleum
migration.
Carlos Orlando Suárez ~ Ecopetrol,
ABSTRACT Bogotá, Colombia; carloso.suarez@
ecopetrol.com.co
Basin modeling in structurally complex areas involves several
Carlos O. Suárez is a geologist. He graduated
difficulties associated with its geometric and thermal history ap- from Universidad Industrial de Santander in
proaches. There have been multiple developments concerning 2006 with a M.Sc. (2016) in science geology
the structural geometry in doing three-dimensional (3-D) basin from Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
modeling in these settings. However, their applicability is limited His main areas of expertise are seismic
because most of these improvements require 3-D structural interpretations, petroleum system modeling,
restorations, which is an input that is not always available at basin and evaluation of prospective resources. He
scale. Although a traditional basin model using backstripping has been working as an exploration geologist
for Ecopetrol since 2012 in several basins in
could give a faster overview of the petroleum system elements, it
Colombia.
is an alternative method that may distort the structural evolution
and, consequently, the petroleum potential evaluation. Equally Iván Camilo Higuera ~ Ecopetrol,
important are the thermal history uncertainties in these envi- Bogotá, Colombia; Ivan.Higuera@
ronments, where several factors disturb the thermal regime. ecopetrol.com.co
Despite these difficulties, traditional 3-D basin modeling could be Camilo Higuera is a senior structural geologist
a reliable tool when we are able to understand the geometric and at the exploration vice presidency at Ecopetrol,
thermal histories and implement the proper adjustments. We specializing in brittle deformation and the
propose alternative methods to tackle common problems when characterization of fracture networks and in
the analyses of the growth of orogenic wedges
building 3-D basin models, and we demonstrate their validity
and tectonic evolution of mountain belts.
with an example in the Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. For his research, Higuera uses field-based
This hydrocarbon province located in the northern Andes cor- structural methods, core and log analyses,
responds to an intermountain basin that has undergone a complex digital rock physics, and numerical modeling.

Luis Ernesto Rojas ~ Ecopetrol, Bogotá,

Copyright ©2020. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. Colombia; Luiser.Rojas@ecopetrol.com.co
Manuscript received July 8, 2017; provisional acceptance February 14, 2017; revised manuscript Luis Ernesto Rojas is a senior geologist who has
received April 14, 2017; revised manuscript provisional acceptance October 31, 2017; 2nd revised been working for Ecopetrol for 26 years. He
manuscript received January 15, 2018; 2nd revised manuscript provisional acceptance June 28, 2018;
3rd revised manuscript received November 1, 2018; final acceptance April 15, 2019.
received his B.Sc. in geology in 1991 from the
DOI:10.1306/0415191612917185

AAPG Bulletin, v. 104, no. 1 (January 2020), pp. 1–19 1

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 Universidad Industrial de Santander and his
M.Sc. in tectonics from the Royal Holloway
College of the University of London in 2005.
Since he joined Ecopetrol in 1992, he has been
working in regional studies in Colombian
basins, structural geology, and oil prospection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As part of an integral project that has
involved detailed work from several
disciplines, the authors thank Maria del Pilar
Stifano, Cristina Lopez, Sandra Anaya, Cesar
Ivan Ballesteros, Oscar Mauricio Salazar,
Nestor Gamba, Wilson Zamora, Xiomara
Prince, and Iván Rodriguez for their valuable
contributions. The authors are grateful to
Andrés Mora for his productive observations
on an earlier version of the manuscript.
Incisive comments by Allegra Hosford
Scheirer, Leslie Magoon, Carolyn Lampe, and
Friedemann Baur greatly improved the
manuscript. We would also like to show our
gratitude to Jaron Lelivelt and Frank Yoris for
their insights. Finally, the authors would like
to thank Ecopetrol and exploration vice
presidency for its permission to publish this
paper.
EDITOR’S NOTE
This paper is from the AAPG Hedberg
Research Conference on “The Future of Basin
and Petroleum System Modeling” held in
Santa Barbara, California, April 3–8, 2016.
More papers from this conference were
published in the April 2018 (vol. 102, no. 4)
and October 2019 (vol. 103, no. 10) issues of
the Bulletin.
2 Basin Modeling in Structurally Complex Areas: Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia
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evolution. Its structural configuration represents a modeling
challenge by means of the backstripping method. Additionally, a
high variability exists in the present-day basal heat flow related
to its structural evolution. The result of our model not only fits
the calibration data, but also reflects the geological processes
better. The proposed methodology intends to aid basin modelers
in providing additional options when modeling in structurally
deformed basins.
INTRODUCTION
Basin modeling in structurally deformed settings involves several
difficulties that can be grouped into structural geometry chal-
lenges (Lampe et al., 2006; Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009;
Gibson, 2012) and thermal modeling challenges (Stein et al.,
1995; Waples, 1998; Husson and Moretti, 2002; Allen and Allen,
2005). This paper intends to aid basin modelers in identifying
modeling flaws and provide key solutions when dealing with
geometrical and thermal complexity in deformed areas. In terms
of structural geometry complexity, backstripping works properly
when it accounts for paleothickness (Hantschel and Kauerauf,
2009; Gibson, 2012). This contribution is an example of how this
methodology can be improved when it is related to deformation
events. Additionally, we illustrate a new method for the re-
construction of paleoheat flow maps to obtain consistent thermal
histories in deformed settings. Our case study of the intermoun-
tain Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) strengthens the confidence
in applying these methods.
The structural geometry is an important element that must
be addressed in any basin model of a tectonically complex region.
Two main methodologies exist that are commonly used to re-
construct the burial history and the paleogeometry in basin
modeling: backstripping and structural restoration (Gibson, 2012).
Backstripping of the present-day geometry is a simple and con-
venient method that is, by far, the most used procedure in three-
dimensional (3-D) basin modeling. However, this method only
works well in basins with subhorizontal layers and tectonically
stable settings (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). The back-
stripping method relies on the successive removal of the
overlying layers until the deposition of the bottommost layer is
reached. During the process, decompaction and other petro-
physical and thermal calculations are included in each time step
(Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). An important shortcoming
of the backstripping methodology is that it uses the vertical
apparent thickness instead of the true stratigraphic thickness
(Figure 1), which is not a problem in basins with horizontal
beds, where these magnitudes are similar. However, this rep-
resents a difficulty for basin models that involve moderate to
 steeply dipping beds, where the vertical back-
stripping algorithm calculates larger apparent
thickness (Figure 1). It is important to note that this
problem is not present when layers in the geo-
metrical model are constructed using isopach maps,
which may cause a different problem, in particular, a
depth underestimation. An additional challenge is
that with the backstripping method it is not possible
to model tectonically repeated section in a single po-
sition, such as in reverse faulted areas (Figure 1). When
modeling, this issue is not only restricted to the
present-day geometry, but backstripping propagates
its effect throughout the whole burial history. In spite
of that, backstripping models can be modified by
means of paleothickness maps to correct the evolution
of the basin models (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009;
Gibson, 2012).
Basin modeling software companies have designed
specialized tools (e.g., PetroMod – TecLink) that deal
with the most complex configurations in deformed
geological structures. These tools use paleogeometries
from structural modeling as input for the main de-
formation stages (Lampe et al., 2006, 2012; Baur et al.,
2009). Full application of this workflow is not widely
applied at large scale in 3-D basin models because it
requires the use of 3-D structural restoration, which is
a time- and resource-demanding process that is not
always available at a basin scale. Taking the geometric
evolution and decompaction from structural modeling
programs is a convenient procedure for dealing with
tectonic, particularly if the model corresponds to a
thrusted belt defined by thin-skinned tectonics,
including low-angle faults and intense folding; how-
ever, it is important to consider that any one structural
restoration only represents a single valid geometric
scenario among several possible solutions. With that
in mind, it should be pointed out that any one
structural model should be validated not only for its
geometric coherence, but also because its basin
modeling output fits the calibration data. Using
paleoreconstructed 3-D data may improve the ge-
ometry of a basin model through time (J. Lelijvelt,
2017, personal communication); however, this time-
intensive method reduces the possibility of testing
multiple scenarios in the same time span.
This paper also addresses the thermal modeling
in tectonically complex areas. It is known that the
thermal history in the basin is not only affected by
internal properties such as thermal conductivities and
radiogenic heat generation within the sedimentary

Figure 1. Sketch showing backstripping problems in two different geometries. Thicknesses for layers 1 and 2 are laterally uniform. (A)
Folded section and (B) its corresponding backstripped geometry at the moment of deposition of layer 2. Note that the anomalous
thickness increases in areas of highest bed dip. (C) Reverse fault and (D) its backstripped geometry at the moment of deposition of layer 2.
Note that geometric simplification used by the backstripping creates anomalous thickness in the faulted areas. Thickness anomaly in
faulted models increases with low-angle faults and more displacement.

GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 3
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 rocks (which is automatically calculated by modeling
programs according to the assigned lithologies), but
also by external factors (Lee, 1970; Čermák, 1979;
Morgan and Sass, 1984; Ranalli, 1991). Some of
these surrounding conditions are regional water
flows, surface temperature variations, and, most im-
portantly, by lithospheric processes expressed as basal
heat flow (Davis et al., 1999; Allen and Allen, 2005;
Slagstad et al., 2008). Whereas considerable work
exists on extensional basins regarding the thermal
development linking heat flow with the degree of
crustal attenuation (McKenzie, 1978), much less
attention has been paid to heat-flow histories in
other tectonic settings (Waples, 1998). Uncertainties
in the thermal history are particularly large in com-
pressional tectonic regimes because of the impact of
topography, tectonic load, uplift, erosion, meteoric
water charge, and variable rates in sedimentation and
compaction, among others. The combination of these
factors changing through time makes the prediction of
geothermal history of the basin fill difficult (Stein
et al., 1995; Husson and Moretti, 2002).
GEOMETRICAL MODELING
The use of structural restorations is preferred when
performing basin models in structurally complex
areas. However, in tectonic environments dominated
by high-angle faults, small amounts of lateral
shortening, and large wavelength folds, it is possible
to get an overall approach on the petroleum system
analysis with a standard backstripping basin model.
Under these conditions, a careful geometrical anal-
ysis helps avoiding common pitfalls resulting from
incorrect backstripped reconstructions. Some of
these potential errors correspond to overestimation of
paleothicknesses (Figure 1). An erroneous estimate
of thickness can lead to incorrect burial histories and,
consequently, incorrect pressure and thermal calcu-
lations with their subsequent effects on source and
reservoir rocks. In addition, flawed paleogeometric
restorations can alter the evolution of migration
pathways and severely distort the hydrocarbon
charge history. To address these issues, back-
stripping models can be modified to include pale-
othickness corrections to reasonably represent the
structural evolution of tectonically complex basins
(Gibson, 2012).
4 Basin Modeling in Structurally Complex Areas: Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia
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Thickness corrections of dipping strata are gen-
erally not performed in 3-D basin models (González
et al., 2012; Stifano et al., 2012), meaning that the
effects of inclined beds are not represented. Some
basin modeling software have thickness-correction
tools built in (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009),
which consist of correcting the thickness at a given
time. That procedure can honor the paleothick-
ness at a given stage; however, the mathematical
procedure to propagate the thickness adjustment
through time does not reproduce any geological
process at all and, for instance, might lead to un-
expected results in the modeled basin evolution.
The implication of using the vertical distance be-
tween horizons as the stratigraphic thickness in a
dipping section (even a monocline) is equivalent to
that of a section with structurally added thickness
(because the overestimated thickness is a consequence
of a structural event that tilted the bed). An additional
complication is the fact that the greatest apparent
thickness observed in the current structure was also
present during the basin evolution from, but not be-
fore, the moment the deformed geometry originated.
This is one of the biggest weaknesses in standard
modeling, because backstripping fails to relate the
structurally added thickness to the deformation event
that created it, which is correctly simulated by basin
models using structurally restored geometries (Lampe
et al., 2006; Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009; Gibson
2012; Sánchez et al., 2015).
Proposed Approach for the Geometrical
Modeling
Given the fact that basin modeling algorithms over-
estimate the stratigraphic thickness in tilted beds
as well as in faulted beds through time, we propose
correction of paleothicknesses in accordance with the
main tectonic events. It is important to be clear that
this methodology is not recommended in highly de-
formed folded belts with low-angle faults (Hantschel
and Kauerauf, 2009) but can be used in basins with
dipping horizons and high-angle faults, such as the
MMV. A paleothickness correction consists of the
addition of the expected thickness at a given time,
which is then used by the modeling program to
tie the paleogeometries (Hantschel and Kauerauf,
2009). Thickness anomalies related to high-angle
 faults are restricted to narrow trends along the
fault areas (Figure 1). In this case, the realization of
paleothickness maps is simpler than thickness cor-
rections related to dipping beds, where the problem
is spread over wider areas, increasing the impact on
basin models and the difficulty in the correction.
Dip values can be estimated from most mapping
programs. According to angle relationships, dips be-
tween 25° and 45° represent a thickness overestimation
between 10% and 40%. We propose 20° of dip as the
threshold for thickness correction (lower dips than that
represent less than 6% of error that could be neglected).
However, if automatic tools are adapted to modeling
programs, the full range of dips could be corrected.
The concept presented in this paper for thickness
correction in a structurally thickened section compares
three different scenarios (Figure 2). The first scenario
corresponds to the default compaction trend, in which
the thickness change is calculated with simple back-
stripping. In this scenario, we calculate the back-
stripped thickness following compaction laws (line A).
The second scenario considers a thickness change that
includes a thickness correction by estimating a rea-
sonable original thickness (line B). Finally, the third
scenario illustrates the proposed correction, in which
Figure 2. Schematic thickness change calculated from back-
stripping for a section where the vertical distance between ho-
rizons is greater than the true stratigraphic thickness. Three
different scenarios are shown: (A) simple backstripped model;
(B) backstripped model with original paleothickness correction;
and (C) backstripped model with paleothickness correction at
time of deformation. hf = present-day thickness (structurally
thickened section); ho = original thickness; hs1 = paleothickness
at starting time of structural thickening (ts1); hs2 = paleothick-
ness at ending time of structural thickening (ts2); hx = pseudo-
original thickness (calculated from simple backstripping); tf =
present-day time; to = depositional time.
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we modify the default compaction trend with paleo-
thickness related to the moment of deposition and to
the deformation event (line C).
Although none of the compaction trends illus-
trated in Figure 2 realistically represents geometric
complexities resulting from tectonic deformation,
line C offers the best approach for a model based on
backstripping. Firstly, line A represents the typical
compaction trend used by modeling programs that
decompacts to the moment of deposition, the total
present-day thickness, including the structurally
thickened section. The thickness change represented
by line A works properly in undeformed basins;
however, in tectonically deformed settings, decom-
paction includes not only the true thickness, but
the structurally added thickness, leading to over-
estimated burial histories and incorrect basin paleo-
geometries. Secondly, correction of the original
thickness (line B) is a step toward a feasible burial
history; however, this is only a partial solution be-
cause this procedure can result in a compaction
trend that is not geologically correct. An additional
problem is that the structurally added thickness is
distributed over time after the deposition (typical
modeling algorithms use linear extrapolation to
apply corrections), which could be a major issue,
particularly for younger deformation events. Finally,
we recommend the modified trend represented by
line C, which is an option that uses a multiple pa-
leothickness correction (related to deposition and
deformation times) that results in a much more
reasonable burial history in terms of original thick-
ness and accommodation time of the structurally
added thickness. It is important to remark that the
resulting compaction trend is similar to the default
trend calculated from simple backstripping (line A),
excluding the time corresponding to the deformation
event, when the nonstratigraphic thickness is ac-
commodated. This approach replicates in a better
way the actual geological processes.
In summary, a good backstripped reconstruction
in tectonically compressive settings can only be ac-
complished if the model is corrected by paleothick-
ness maps in accordance with the tectonic events
that produced the deformation. Our suggested ap-
proach achieves this premise by tying a typical
compaction trend to three control points related to
reasonable thicknesses at the time of deposition,
predeformation, and postdeformation. Although the
GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 5
 procedure could vary depending on the software,
the following is the general workflow. To obtain
the proposed compaction trend, it is necessary to
run two preliminary simulations. A first model with
simple backstripping will provide the uncompacted
present-day thickness at the ending time of the
deformation event (first control point). The same
preliminary model can be used to estimate the
original thickness in deformed areas, which can be
done by extrapolating the calculated original thick-
ness from adjacent undeformed areas (second control
point). By simulating a second model constrained
with the corrected original thickness, the correspond-
ing compacted thickness can be calculated at the
starting time of deformation (third control point).
With these calibration points, the final simulation
should have a thickness history that follows the
typical compaction algorithms and is constrained by
three key events during the basin evolution.
THERMAL MODELING
Basin modelers typically specify the basal heat-flow
boundary condition in two different ways. One is by
running a full crustal model to account for the effect
of lithospheric processes on the basin (Morgan and
Sass, 1984; Vejbæk, 1989; Hantschel and Kauerauf,
2009), and the other is by prescribing a basal heat
flow based on analog environments (Poelchau et al.,
1999; Allen and Allen, 2005). On one side, input
parameters for a full crustal model in a compressive
range are commonly unknown, particularly because
there is implicit lithospheric thickening (Stein,
1995); on the other side, basal heat flow from analog
environments leaves a wide range of possible sce-
narios that could distort the actual hydrocarbon
potential in the basin. This uncertainty could be
even more relevant in basins that have undergone
transitions between different tectonic settings.
Proposed Approach for the Thermal
Modeling
Although basal heat-flow maps defined with any of
the previously mentioned methods work properly in
most basin models, in structurally deformed settings,
this issue requires a different approach. The first step
consists of an appropriate definition of the present-
6 Basin Modeling in Structurally Complex Areas: Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia
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day basal heat flow that makes geological sense and
allows an acceptable fit between measured and cal-
culated temperature data (Stein, 1995). To do this,
we use Fourier’s first law, which states that the
geothermal gradient at any given location in the basin
is the consequence of the basal heat flow and the
thermal conductivity of the sedimentary fill (Allen
and Allen, 2005). Although this interdependence is
used by some modeling programs that offer some
automatic tools for calculating heat-flow maps from
measured temperature data (Hantschel and Kauerauf,
2009), we present an option for estimating these maps
manually. It is clear that understanding the present-day
thermal model in a compressive framework is not an
easy task, but estimating the thermal behavior and its
lateral variations during the complete history as a
compressive basin is even more difficult. For example,
the uplift resulting from a compressive event causes
erosional events that commonly imply large un-
certainties on the timing and amount of erosion,
producing ambiguous results in the heat-flow his-
tory (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009).
As mentioned above, in line with Fourier’s first
law, the basal heat flow can be calculated from the
thermal conductivity and the geothermal gradient of
the sedimentary fill. The thermal conductivity is
typically determined by the lithology chosen for each
layer. To account for the thermal effects of all model
layers, it is necessary to perform a weighted average
of all of the conductivities according to the layer
thickness. The geothermal gradient map can be es-
timated from a database of corrected temperature
data in the basin. However, in structurally deformed
settings, we expect some degree of variability of the
basal heat flow and, consequently, in the geothermal
gradient of the basin. Most classical mapping algo-
rithms could produce thermal gradient maps that
honor the borehole temperature data set, but, in
deformed areas, these maps have a significant level
of uncertainty away from the control points. Thus,
some kind of geological control must be considered
to get reasonable maps in areas of deficient borehole
control. Furthermore, given that an important ben-
efit from basin models is the assessment of areas with
poor constraints, it is important to obtain reliable
thermal predictions in these areas.
Using a database of corrected borehole temper-
atures, the first step in reconstructing the thermal
history consists of identifying general trends in the
 distribution of the present-day geothermal gradient.
It is imperative to determine if the observed pattern
of temperature in the basin shows some dependency
with distribution of variables, such as sedimentary
rock thicknesses, basement depth, and topography,
because the current thermal regime may have some
dependencies on those physical elements. It is im-
portant to identify these relationships to use them
to help mapping in areas of poor temperature con-
straints. We can use this help by calculating the
correlation function between each one of these
variables and the geothermal gradient. Commonly, a
polynomial equation results in the best fit between
selected points. The obtained mathematical func-
tions can then be used in any map calculator to
obtain a definitive present-day geothermal gradient
map that not only honors the measured data (as most
mapping algorithms do), but is also more reliable in
areas of no data because it is geologically constrained.
Finally, the resulting geothermal map computed
together with the previously calculated conductivity
map gives, as a result, the present-day basal heat-flow
map. Although the described procedure is a modi-
fication of a known technique in terms of heat-flow
estimation, this methodology provides an opportu-
nity for calculating the heat-flow history during the
compressive phase that is presently affecting the
basin. If we assume that the observed correlation
between the geothermal gradient and other factors is
not only restricted to the present-day time, but also
occurred since the time the current tectonic began.
Under this premise, the evolution of variables that
correlate with the geothermal gradient are useful
to estimate changes in the thermal regime through
time, making it possible to estimate paleoheat flow
maps that are consistent with the basin development.
APPLICATION TO THE MIDDLE
MAGDALENA VALLEY
Geological Background
The MMV is a prolific hydrocarbon basin located
between the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of
Colombia in the northwestern part of the Andes
Mountains (Figure 3). The basin accounts for more
than 2 billion equivalent barrels of hydrocarbon
production over the last century (Willat et al., 2012).
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Most oil production from this basin comes from
structural plays in Cenozoic fluvial reservoir rocks
(Cooper et al., 1995; Sassi et al., 2007) that were
charged from Cretaceous source rocks (Figure 4)
during Miocene–Pliocene petroleum generation and
migration events (Garcia and Parra, 2003).
As an intermountain basin, the MMV has un-
dergone a complex tectonic evolution reflected in
the sedimentary record (Bayona et al., 2013). Its
evolution as a sedimentary basin began in a tectonic
rift setting in the Triassic–Early Cretaceous, with de-
position of continental and marine sediments with
the main depocenter in the present-day Eastern
Cordillera (Cooper et al., 1995; Sarmiento, 2001).
The tectonic evolution involved deposition of post-
rift sediments under marine conditions, containing
important intervals with high organic carbon con-
tent, such as La Luna and Tablazo Formations during
the Late Cretaceous (Mora et al., 1996; Ramón and
Dzou, 1999; Garcia and Parra, 2003).
The postrift phase was followed by a tectonic
inversion in the Paleocene–early Eocene that pro-
duced shortening and exhumation on a broad oro-
genic front (Parra et al., 2012), resulting in a regional
angular unconformity (Gómez et al., 2003; Mora
et al., 2006; Parra et al., 2009). From the late
Eocene–Miocene, the sequence was buried under a
thick column of synorogenic continental sediments
(Bayona et al., 2013), which includes the main res-
ervoir and seal rocks in the basin, characterized by
alternating sandstone and shale (LaPaz, Esmeraldas,
Mugrosa, and Colorado Formations) (Figure 4).
Since the late Oligocene, and more intensively
during Pliocene–Pleistocene, the region underwent
compressional stresses during the Andean orogeny
that uplifted the Eastern Cordillera (Cooper et al.,
1995; Mora et al., 2006, 2013; Parra et al., 2009).
The uplifting of these mountain ranges provides the
sediment source for a thick molassic sequence (real
formation) in the intermountain basin and developed
most of the structural traps in the MMV.
Dipping beds that characterize the present-day
geometry of the MMV represent an inherent prob-
lem for paleogeometric reconstruction by means of
the traditional backstripping method (Figure 5). A
Cretaceous dip map resulting from well and seismic
interpretation shows the dips for the sub-Eocene
sequence (below the Eocene unconformity; Figure
6). These angles range between 0° and 45°, with
GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 7
 Figure 3. Location map showing the study area (white polygon) and the Middle Magdalena Valley (black polygon). The inset map
shows northwestern South America; the white rectangle corresponds to the region shown in the location map.

large areas of more than 20°. As previously men-
tioned, these values represent a potential problem
when integrated into a basin model.
Previous Basin Models in the Middle
Magdalena Valley
Extensive work on one-dimensional (1-D) (Mora
et al., 1996; Garcia and Parra, 2003; Moretti et al.,
2010) and two-dimensional basin models (Restrepo-
Pace et al., 2004) on the MMV show the hydrocar-
bon potential in specific locations within the basin.
Recently, the regional analyses in the basin have in-
cluded other processes, such as migration, accumulation,
and preservation by means of 3-D models (González
et al., 2012; Stifano et al., 2012; Suárez, 2016).
However, most of these models do not account for
the overestimation of the modeled thickness. The con-
sequence is a miscalculation of the thermal matura-
tion history during the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene,

8 Basin Modeling in Structurally Complex Areas: Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia

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 Figure 4. Simplified stratigraphic column for the Middle Magdalena Valley with the main tectonic stages during the basin evolution. Age,
rock unit, stratigraphic code, lithology, and general depositional environment are indicated. Modified from Stifano et al. (2012).

leading to a reduction of the source rock remaining
potential for the youngest petroleum generation
pulse during the Neogene (Garcia and Parra, 2003;
González et al., 2012).
All models agree that the thermal evolution of
the MMV occurred in three main phases: (1) an
extensional phase that corresponds to the rift basin
(Triassic–Early Cretaceous); (2) a thermal sub-
sidence phase defined by the postrift event (Late
Cretaceous); and (3) a compressive phase that
started with the tectonic inversion associated with
the uplift of the Central Cordillera during the
Paleocene–Eocene and continued during the Cenozoic,
including the Andean orogeny from late Miocene to
present day (Toro et al., 2004; Mora et al., 2010; Parra
et al., 2012).
However, a more detailed focus on heat-flow
values for the extensional and thermal subsidence
stages shows disparity between these studies, re-
sulting in large uncertainties for the reconstruction
of the maturity evolution of the MMV. Previous 1-D
basin models have considered maximum heat-flow

GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 9
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 Figure 5. Base Cretaceous surface in a three-dimensional view from the Middle Magdalena Valley model presented in this study. Three
successive east-west–oriented cross sections from north to south illustrate the changing geometry, in which the most relevant element is
the Paleocene–Eocene regional unconformity (black dotted line). The spatially complex variation in the burial history is shown in the
selected one-dimensional burial histories.

values between 65 and 90 mW/m2 (6–8 mW/ft2) for
the rift and postrift phases in the central part of the
basin (Mora et al., 1996; Garcia and Parra, 2003).
Although these heat-flow values seem to produce
an acceptable fit between measured and calculated
thermal maturity in their respective models, this
wide range suggests that the thermal history for
the rift basin deserves a deeper analysis. Thermal
modeling for the rift and postrift basin in the MMV
should consider the rift subsidence analysis de-
veloped by Sarmiento (2001).
According to Sarmiento (2001), several rift
events exist from the Triassic–Early Cretaceous that
are identified in the present-day Eastern Cordillera;
however, the thermal impact of these tectonic events
is less evident in the MMV (Fabre, 1983). Figure 7
shows the subsidence curves for the Cretaceous
section interpreted in this study. This subsidence
pattern indicates that there should be considered a
tectonic control on the anomalously high subsidence
rate in the postrift phase. The heat-flow history used
in this study for the extensional phase shows a re-
gional variation according to the position of the
Cretaceous rift depocenter, with slightly higher values
toward the east (such as in the Coyote-1 well), closer
to the Eastern Cordillera (Figure 8).
Finally, the heat-flow evolution for the com-
pressive tectonics phase during the Cenozoic is more

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Figure 6. Dip map in the study area for the Lower Cretaceous
section. Note that pattern in areas with higher dip angles is similar to
the paleothermal maturity pattern shown in Figure 9. deg = degrees.
challenging (Sánchez et al., 2015) and has never
been studied in the MMV. Most previous 1-D
models in the MMV have simplified the Cenozoic
heat-flow evolution as a linear extrapolation between
Late Cretaceous and present-day values or as a
smooth decline with higher slope at the end of the
Cretaceous (Mora et al., 1996; Garcia and Parra,
2003). These simplifications have a tremendous
impact in the petroleum generation history and
subsequently in the prospectivity of the MMV.
Geometric Modeling in the Middle
Magdalena Valley
We modeled the study area using three different
methods for the geometric approach: (1) standard
uncorrected backstripping; (2) backstripping with
deposition thickness correction; and (3) back-
stripping with thickness corrections at deposition
and deformation timing. The first and second
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methods do not consider the deformation to accom-
modate the nonstratigraphic thickness (structurally
added thickness because of apparent thickness
effect), and therefore fails to correctly predict
the evolution of parameters that are controlled
by the burial history, such as sediment rate, po-
rosity, permeability, thermal maturity, and trans-
formation ratio. The latter methodology reveals,
geologically, more reasonable results for the time
before the deformation event and especially for all
the parameters that depend on the burial history as
listed above. Although their resulting present-day
thermal maturity maps are similar, there are dif-
ferences in their thermal histories. The third ap-
proach takes the most reasonable burial depth
evolution into consideration. This is confirmed
with a comparison of three thermal maturity maps
for the Tablazo Formation (the deepest modeled source
rock), derived from the procedures described above
(Figure 9). Although similarities among these maps
exist, an important difference can be observed at
65 Ma, which is a time that corresponds to a pre-
deformation event. In general, maps without cor-
rection show higher thermal maturity in areas of
higher present-day deformation. The key point is that
the basin was at a quiet tectonic stage at that time,
which should mean no significant lateral variations
of the burial depths and, therefore, no abrupt changes
in thermal maturity. This analysis confirms that
thermal maturity and other parameters controlled by
the burial history tend to overestimate without im-
plementing a thickness correction. The high similarity
between the present-day thermal maturity maps,
among the three methods, is explained by the late
Miocene to Pliocene burial history (after the main de-
formation event in Cordillera), when the deepest burial
and maximum temperature were reached. Although
this recent event gave way to the last, and more pro-
spective, petroleum generation pulse (Garcia and
Parra, 2003; González et al., 2012), it is very im-
portant to have a reasonable paleogeometric ap-
proach, because modeled generation volumes for the
last event are controlled by the remaining potential
left by the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene pulse.
Once the geometric evolution of the model has
been corrected, the evolution of parameters linked to
burial history (porosity, permeability, and thermal
maturity, among others) will be consistent with the
tectonic evolution. Only at this point, further work
GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 11
 Figure 7. Subsidence curves for several boreholes in the Middle Magdalena Valley. Morales-1 and Bandera-1 wells are located outside
of the modeled area. Figure 3 shows the borehole locations.

regarding thermal calibration and, subsequently, pe-
troleum generation, migration, and possibly fluid prop-
erties, modeling and or matching should be considered.
New Thermal Modeling Approach in the
Middle Magdalena Valley
To reconstruct the thermal history in the MMV, we
propose a new methodology for addressing the
heat-flow history during the current compressive
tectonics. According to our proposed methodol-
ogy, we used the parameters that control the
present-day thermal regime to estimate paleoheat
flow maps during the time these tectonics have been
active. In line with this intention, to reconstruct pa-
leoheat flow maps, it is necessary to be made clear
that present-day heat-flow distribution needs to be
understood.
With the aim of defining the present-day heat-
flow map, and according to Fourier’s first law, we

Figure 8. Cretaceous heat-flow history for wells located in the study area. The heat-flow trend during the extensional and thermal
subsidence phases (rift and postrift) is in accordance with previous studies in which higher heat-flow values are expected in the eastern
part of the Middle Magdalena Valley (Coyote-1 well). Figure 3 shows the borehole locations.

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 Figure 9. Present-day and Late Cretaceous (before tectonic deformation) thermal maturity maps for Tablazo Formation (107 Ma)
under different scenarios of paleothickness correction. The first scenario (A, B), shows a model without paleothickness correction, which is
the model with highest thermal maturity at 65 Ma (B; high similarity with the dip angle map shown in Figure 6). This evidence suggests
that modern geometry is forcing the basin model results. The second scenario corresponds to a model with depositional paleothickness
correction (C, D), showing lower maturity than the first model. Persistence of higher thermal maturity before the tectonic deformation (D)
indicates that correction is not working properly. The third scenario (E, F) links the thickness change with the tectonic evolution, which
results in a model with lower maturity at 65 Ma. In the last model, the burial history is in accordance with the tectonic events that
deformed the basin. %Ro = vitrinite reflectance.

obtained conductivity and thermal gradient maps.
First, we derived a thermal conductivity map from
the modeled lithologic composition of the sequence.
In most modeling programs, thermal conductivity
is typically determined for each lithologic layer;
however, we performed a weighted average map
of all the conductivities according to the layer
thickness (Figure 10). Although sufficient well
temperature data exist to construct a thermal gradient
map, the high variability in the thermal gradient
measured in the MMV (Su árez, 2016), ranging
between 15°C/km and 27°C/km, implies large
mapping uncertainty in areas without borehole
control. To diminish this problem, we used an
observed, first-order correspondence between the
geothermal gradient and other parameters, such
as basement depth and thicknesses in the Cenozoic
sequence, particularly the Miocene section, to

GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 13
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 Figure 10. Thermal conductivity map for the complete sedimentary fill. This map is a weighted average of individual layers.
Given that thermal conductivity depends on lithology, the variability is mainly driven by relative changes in the sedimentary
thicknesses.

construct mapping correlation algorithms and then
derive a thermal gradient map (Figure 11). Although
this map corresponds to observed relationships that
are not scientifically proved, it makes geological sense
and seems to be a valuable tool for predicting the
thermal gradient pattern in areas without geological
control. A comparison between basement depth
and the resulting thermal gradient map (Figure 12)
reflects a large degree of similarity that could be
a consequence of thermal effects associated with
refraction of heat from the basement (Cull and
Conley, 1983). The obtained conductivity and
thermal gradient maps are then used to calculate
a new heat-flow map. The resulting present-day
heat flow shows a variation between 26 and 41
mW/m2 (2–4 mW/ft2) within the study area, which
allows an excellent temperature prediction even for
wells that were omitted during the calibration
process.
Considering that the proposed present-day
heat-flow map is reasonable, a feasible interpretation
of the thermal evolution during the compressive phase
can be addressed. The assumption that the described
correlation between the geothermal gradient and other
factors is not only restricted to the present day, but
has been manifested from the time the compressive
tectonic is prevailing is a key aspect to determine
the Cenozoic heat-flow maps. Under this premise,
the evolution of variables that correlate with the
geothermal gradient were used to estimate changes

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 Figure 11. Scatter plots showing thermal gradient correlation with basement depth and thicknesses from the Cenozoic succession.
These curves suggest that present-day temperature is somehow linked to variation in these parameters. Fm. = Formation.

in the thermal regime. We used the relative varia-
tion of these variables to calculate the paleoheat
flow maps.
Resulting heat-flow maps for the compressive
phase in the MMV show that there is a heterogeneous
cooling trend that suggests a relation to the geometric
evolution of the basin during that time (Figure 13).
The most relevant feature is that after the late Miocene
(15 Ma); the thermal gradients abruptly decreased,
which is related to the main uplift event in the Eastern

Figure 12. (A) Calculated present-day thermal gradient map (°C/km). (B) Structural map for the basement (interpreted from seismic
data). High similarities between these maps suggest some kind of interdependence.

GONZÁLEZ ET AL. 15
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 Cordillera during the Andean orogeny, when a thick
column of syntectonic sediments was deposited in the
MMV. This tectonic event resulted in high sedimen-
tation rates and a strong temperature disequilibrium
in areas with more rapidly deposited basin fill.
Thermal maturity patterns in most compressive
settings are characterized for their high spatial vari-
ability. Although the presented geological model can
be improved with newer and more detailed infor-
mation, the presented thermal evolution provides a
reasonably good fit with existing calibration param-
eters, and it is more reliable in areas of sparse data
(areas lacking boreholes). This model is geologically
more consistent with a direct link to the tectonic and
depositional history of the basin.
Exploratory Implications in the Middle
Magdalena Valley
One of the critical factors for risk assessment that
deserves attention in the MMV is the timing of
petroleum generation and expulsion (Sassi et al.,
2007). Given that most structural traps in the
MMV were formed during the Andean orogeny
(Miocene–present-day) and that a significant first
petroleum generation pulse transformed a major
part of the organic matter during the Paleocene
(during the first tectonic event), a charge risk is
present in some structures. Although previous pe-
troleum system models were calibrated with ther-
mal maturity indicators, their burial and thermal

Figure 13. (A) Heat-flow evolution in the Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) illustrated in (A) map view and (B) curves for reference
boreholes. Note that heat flow during the compressive phase shows a general cooling trend that is more relevant after late Miocene
(Mioc.) (15 Ma), which coincides with the main uplift event in the Eastern Cordillera during the Andean orogeny. This event explains the
high spatial variability in the heat flow when syntectonic molassic sediments with variable thickness were rapidly deposited in the MMV.
Figure 3 shows the borehole locations. Olig. = Oligocene; Pal. = Paleocene.

16 Basin Modeling in Structurally Complex Areas: Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia

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Figure 14. Comparison between organic matter transfor-
mation ratios for the Tablazo Formation in models with and
without corrections for the La Luna-1 well. Although the present-day
transformation ratios are virtually the same, the model without
correction shows an earlier transformation that represents higher
risk in terms of trapping timing for Cenozoic traps.
histories in structural lows and depocenters were
poorly linked to their structural evolution. These
evaluations resulted in hotter thermal history pre-
dictions, which led to lower volumes for the sec-
ond pulse of petroleum generation and, thus,
less-prospective areas. The current model gener-
ates petroleum later, which has a positive effect on
the charge risk for some structures (Figure 14). The
results have helped to build a more extensive ex-
ploration portfolio and have increased the interest
toward new play concepts (González et al., 2012;
Stifano et al., 2012; Spickert, 2014; Suárez, 2016).
The 3-D basin modeling has proved to be a powerful
tool in supporting new exploratory opportunities.
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