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Development of Biodegradable Bioplastic films from Taro Starch Reinforced

with Bentonite

Article in Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications · November 2021

DOI: 10.1016/j.carpta.2021.100173

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 Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/
carbohydrate-polymer-technologies-and-applications

Development of biodegradable bioplastic films from Taro starch reinforced

with bentonite
Mrithula Shanmathy a, Monalisha Mohanta b, A. Thirugnanam b, *
a
Department of Biotechnology, P S G College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641004, India
b
Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Room No. 206, Odisha 769008, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Single-use plastics are of great concern as they cannot be efficiently recycled and are non-biodegradable, causing
Bioplastic pollution by accumulating in landfills and affecting marine organisms. Bioplastics can be used to replace such
Taro starch single-use plastics as they are biodegradable and renewable. This study used Taro starch (Colocasia esculenta) to
Bentonite
generate bioplastic films reinforced with bentonite at varying concentrations. Scanning electron microscope and
Glass transition temperature
Glycerol
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results showed that the films formed were homogeneous and confirmed
the functional groups of Taro starch. It was found that the gelation temperature of the starch was 75 ◦ C using a
differential scanning calorimetry. With the increase in bentonite concentration, the tensile strength of the bio­
plastic film was found to increase. The bentonite films exhibited more resistance to salt and acid, were sus­
ceptible to alkali and showed minor swelling. The soil degradation studies showed that the films were
biodegradable and could potentially replace synthetic plastics.

1. Introduction
Plastics have become indispensable owing to their multiple utilities,
but they are potent to the environment as they are non-biodegradable.
Due to the extensive use, improper disposal, and recycling of plastics,
they accumulate in the environment as landfills or dumped into the sea,
leading to sequestration of carbon and the marine organisms getting
affected, respectively (Ahmed et al., 2018; Awadhiya, Kumar & Verma,
2016). Out of all the plastics, the plastic utilized for packaging and
grocery bags generates more waste as they cannot be efficiently recycled
and often end up in open dumps or landfills (Alam, Billah & Yajie, 2018).
The cost, design, and single-purpose use are some of the main reasons for
the global usage of plastic bags (Wagner, 2017). Hence, bioplastics made
from renewable resources can potentially replace synthetic plastics as
they are biodegradable.
Plant sources are widely being used for bioplastics due to their ease
of maintenance compared to animal or microbial sources. Cellulose, the
most abundant natural polymer on earth, is rich in cotton linters and flax
fibres that could be processed into cellulose acetate through acetylation.
It was reported that the cellulose yield was higher for flax fibre (81%)
than that of cotton linters (54%). Cellulose acetate is biodegradable and
can form films with high impact resistance, tensile strength, and
moldability (Mostafa, Farag, Abo-dief Hala & Tayeb, 2018). However,
they are difficult to process, which limits their use as bioplastics.
On the other hand, starch is considered one of the most potent
sources for producing bioplastics due to its abundance, cost-
effectiveness, and thermoplastic behavior. It consists of two homopol­
ymers – amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is poly (α− 1,4-glucopyr­
anosyl), a linear polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin is poly(α− 1,4-
glucopyranosyl) with 1,6-glucopyranosyl branches (Solutions & Sam­
pasvägen, 2017). Starch derived from Taro, a tuber growing in tropical
regions, can be used owing to its granule size, which is in the range of
1–5 µm (Lu, Lin, Chen & Chang, 2008). The amylopectin in Taro is short
and possesses a long average chain length which aids in the formation of
a firm gel with high elasticity when heated (Pramodrao & Riar, 2014).
The crystallographic pattern of Taro starch exhibits an A-type crystalline
structure which is dense double-helical in an orthogonal pattern. The
crystalline structure would enable the starch to withstand high heat and
shear conditions (Dome, Podgorbunskikh, Bychkov & Lomovsky, 2020).
The glass transition temperature (Tg) plays an essential role in the
fabrication of bioplastics. The polymers remain in an amorphous state
below their Tg and will be free-flowing above their Tg. During fabrica­
tion, the temperature has to be maintained to stay above the Tg so that
the cohesive forces decrease, leading to the drastic expansion of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: thirugnanam.a@nitrkl.ac.in (A. Thirugnanam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carpta.2021.100173
Received 13 August 2021; Received in revised form 27 October 2021; Accepted 11 November 2021
Available online 14 November 2021
2666-8939/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Shanmathy et al.
polymer and increased free volume (De Graaf, Karman & Janssen,
2003). When it cools to room temperature, they become rubbery and
malleable. The Tg must be lower to obtain a rubbery state. Natural starch
has a relatively higher Tg, and therefore, it becomes necessary to reduce
Tg to obtain plastic behaviour. This can be accomplished using plasti­
cisers that reduce Tg and make the polymer more flexible (Immergut &
Mark, 1965). Glycerol can serve as a plasticiser as they prevent the
recrystallisation of starch and keep the films flexible. In this study,
bentonite (montmorillonite clay) was used as reinforcement. Bentonite
consists majorly of montmorillonite (Al2O3.4(SiO2).H2O), a
phyllo-silicate clay comprising of sheets and layers (Maina, Wanyika &
Gacanja, 2016). It belongs to the 2:1 family of clay with tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets coordinated together, forming layers. The tetrahedral
sheets consist of silica-oxygen tetrahedral, and the octahedral sheet
consists of aluminium, iron, or magnesium coordinated to tetrahedral
sheets through six oxygen molecules. These layers are linked by inter­
layer cations, hydrogen bonding, or Van der Waals force (Uddin, 2018).
Bentonite has a high water holding capacity, expandability, and hy­
groscopicity (Liu, Xie & Qin, 2017).
This study thus aims to develop a bioplastic film from Taro starch
using glycerol as a plasticiser and bentonite as a reinforcement; although
the Taro starch has properties compatible with producing bioplastic
films, no report has been found so far on the production and charac­
terisation of these materials.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Colocasia esculenta (Taro) tubers were procured from the local
market in Rourkela, Odisha. Glycerol about 98% purified (AE2Z620214)
was purchased from Merck India Pvt. Ltd. Bentonite powder
(RM785–500 G), glacial acetic acid (AS001–500ML), sodium hydroxide
flakes (GRM604–500 G), and sodium chloride (GRM3954–500 G) were
purchased from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd.
2.2. Extraction of starch from Taro
Colocasia esculenta (Taro) tubers (3 kg) were cleaned, peeled, and
washed. It was cut and ground into a paste by using a commercial
blender. The paste volume was made up to 5 L using distilled water and
allowed to settle at room temperature for 6 h. It was filtered using a
muslin cloth from which the residue was collected. A muslin cloth is
used in this study instead of an industrial grade filter. It was affordable,
robust, and withstood the pressure exerted to remove excess water from
the scratch residue. The residue collected was dried in a hot air oven for
2 days at 50 ⁰C. The dried residue was then powdered using a com­
mercial blender, sieved, and stored at room temperature.
2.3. Casting of films
Taro starch (3 g) powder was weighed in a beaker to which 100 mL of
distilled water was added. It was stirred at 350 rpm for 10 min on a
magnetic stirrer. Bentonite powder was then added at concentrations
0.5% (w/w), 1% (w/w), 1.5% (w/w), 2% (w/w) and 2.5% (w/w) and
stirred. Glycerol (1.5 mL) was added to it and stirred at 350 rpm for 10
min. The solution was heated at 75 ⁰C for 1.5 h with continuous stirring
at 250 rpm. The slurry was then poured onto a petri-plate, dried in a hot
air oven at 50 ⁰C and stored at room temperature.
(Film weight after swelling − Initial weight of the film)
Percentage swelling =
Initial weight of the film
2
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173
2.4. Characterization
2.4.1. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), particle size and zeta
potential
DSC was performed only for the native starch powder extracted from
Taro. It was performed using Netzsch DSC 200F3 (Netzsch, Germany)
over a temperature range of 20–100 ⁰C with a heating rate of 5 ⁰C/ min.
Nitrogen gas was purged at a rate of 20 mL/min. The gelation temper­
ature for the starch can be predicted from the thermogram generated.
The suspension concentration of bentonite was prepared at 0.01% (w/v)
respectively, and the particle size and zeta potential was measured by
nano particle and Zeta potential analyzer (Malvern, Nano ZS90, UK) at
25 ◦ C and at 7 pH.
2.4.2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The starch powder and the surface of the films were studied using FEI
Quanta FEG 250 SEM at an accelerated voltage of 15 kV and 2000X
magnification. Before analysis, the samples were cut into 1 × 1 cm and
dried entirely in a hot air oven at 50 ⁰C for 5 h. The SEM micrographs
help analyze the surface morphology of films and visually check the
components homogeneity and integrity.
2.4.3. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR)
The bioplastic films’ attenuated total reflectance - FTIR spectra were
recorded using Bruker Alpha E (ATR- FTIR, Bruker). The transmittance
of the films was collected from the wavenumber range 4000- to 600
cm− 1. The functional groups in the films can be compared to analyze the
influence of bentonite at different concentrations.
2.4.4. Mechanical property testing
The tensile property of the films was tested using Electroplus Bioplus
Instron (E1000) (Instron, USA) according to the ASTM D3039 standard.
The samples, in triplicates, were cut such that the length was 4 cm and the
width was 1 cm. The thickness of the samples was also measured before
testing using a screw gauge and was found to be 0.24 ± 0.003 mm. While
cutting the samples, it was made sure that the sides were smooth and
straight without nicks. Tensile testing was carried out at a strain rate of
0.001 mm/s. The tensile strength, elongation at break and Young’s
modulus for the bioplastic films were found from the tensile testing.
2.4.5. Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)
The bioplastic films’ water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) was
assessed using ASTM E96/E96M – 16 standard. The films were cut into
discs of diameter 2 cm, whose diameter was 0.5 cm bigger than that of
the tubes to be capped. Eppendorf tubes were filled with 10 ml of
distilled water and capped with the films cut using a suitable adhesive.
The weight of the tubes was weighed initially (W0) and after 48 h (W48).
The WVTR was calculated by the following formula:
(W0 − W48 )
WVTR = × 104 (1)
A × 48
2.4.6. Swelling test
The swelling behaviour of the films was analyzed at room tempera­
ture in triplicates. The films were cut into 3 × 3 cm, and the initial dry
weight of the sample was measured. Then the films were immersed into
20 mL of distilled water, and the weight of the sample was measured at a
regular time interval until saturation. The percentage of swelling was
then calculated by using the formula,
∗ 100 (2)
M. Shanmathy et al.
The percentage swelling calculated was plotted against time to study the
swelling behaviour.
2.4.7. Effect of alkali, acid and salt
Effect of alkali. The effect of alkali on the bioplastic film generated was
studied by subjecting the films to 10% NaOH solution. The films were
cut in 2 × 2 cm dimension in triplicates, and the weight of the film was
noted. The film was then immersed in 20 mL of the prepared alkali so­
lution, taken out at regular intervals, wiped, and the weight was
measured. The weight loss was plotted as a function of time to study its
behaviour in an alkaline solution.
Effect of acid. For the acid test, the films were cut in 2 × 2 cm dimension
in triplicates, and the weight was noted. It was immersed in 20 mL of
10% glacial acetic acid. The weight of the film was measured at regular
intervals, and the difference in weight in the acidic solution was studied
by plotting it against time.
Effect of salt. The behavior of the bioplastic films in 10% sodium chlo­
ride (NaCl) salt was studied. Films were cut into 2 × 2 cm dimensions in
triplicates, and its initial weight was noted. It was then immersed in the
20 mL of NaCl solution, and its weight at regular intervals was measured
to study the behavior of the film in salt solution..
2.4.8. Wettability test
The wettability of the film was determined by using a Drop Shape
Analyzer (DSA25, Krüss, Germany). The static contact angle was
measured using the sessile drop method using distilled water at ambient
temperature to predict whether the film is hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
For a sample to be wettable, the contact angle must be between 0 and 90
⁰, whereas, for a hydrophobic sample, the contact angle must be greater
than 90 ⁰.
2.4.9. Soil degradation test
A biodegradation test was performed to analyze the degradation rate
of the bioplastics. The films were cut in 2 × 2 cm dimension and were
weighed. The films were then buried in garden soil to examine its
degradation. The weight of the buried film was measured every day until
the entire film degraded.
Fig. 1. (a) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermogram obtained for native Taro starch powder and (b) particle size distribution of bentonite.
3
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), particle size and zeta
potential
Determination of gelation temperature for the extracted native
starch becomes necessary since operating at a temperature higher than
gelation temperature will lead to cracks in the film while temperature
lower than that causes shrinkage. From the thermogram of DSC shown
in Fig. 1, the thermal properties of the Taro starch extracted can be
predicted. The gelation temperature of the starch was found to be
around 75 and 80 ⁰C. Hence the casting of bioplastic films should be
conducted within this temperature range for film formation. This tem­
perature is also known as the glass transition temperature (Tg), which is
crucial for developing bioplastic film from starch that has to be flexible
with good mechanical properties. The DSC was only done for the native
Taro starch powder to evaluate the glass transition temperature Tg. The
Tg of the native Taro starch was around 75 to 80 ⁰C as per the DSC
thermogram, which helped maintain the gelatinisation temperature of
the native starch during the fabrication of bioplastic films.
Fig. 1b showed the particle size distribution of bentonite. As seen
from the figure, the average particle size of bentonite was found to be
1580.2 ± 8.5 nm. The zeta potential of bentonite was found to be − 12.6
mV at 7 pH. The negative value indicates the transfer of H+ ions from
bentonite clay to water thereby leaving more negative charges on the
surface (Niriella & Carnahan, 2006).
3.2. Scanning electron microscopy
The SEM micrographs shown in Fig. 2 help visually analyze the
morphology of the as-cast bioplastic films. The surface morphology
helped analyze the influence of the bentonite and ensure its proper
dispersion in the film. The SEM images of the films, from Fig. 2a to
Fig. 2f, which is 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5% bentonite, show that the
starch and fillers were well homogenized as it indicates no phase sepa­
ration, voids or cracks. The increase in the percentage of bentonite has
been found to have reduced roughness on the film’s surface. The reduced
roughness of the films is due to the interaction between the negatively
charged bentonite and positively charged starch. This attraction be­
tween the molecules might have helped in reducing the roughness by
keeping the contents well intact.
3.3. Mechanical property testing
The addition of bentonite influenced the mechanical properties of
M. Shanmathy et al. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173

Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of the bioplastic films generated at 2000X magnification (a) without bentonite, (b) 0.5 wt% bentonite, (c) 1 wt% bentonite, (d) 1.5 wt%
bentonite, (e) 2 wt% bentonite, and (f) 2.5 wt% bentonite.

the film. In Fig. 3a, it can be observed that the tensile strength of the hydrogen bonds (Lutfi, Sumarlan, Susilo, Zenata & Perdana, 2017).
films decreased with 0.5% bentonite concentration as compared to The influence of the filler over the mechanical properties might be due
without bentonite (0%) concentration. The study indicated that the to the increased formation of hydrogen bonding between the starch and
tensile strength increased with an increase in bentonite concentration the layered structure of bentonite (Rhim, Hong, Park & Ng, 2006). A
(2.5%). However, the amount of bentonite cannot be increased beyond a typical stress-strain graph obtained for a bioplastic film is shown in Fig
specific amount (2.5%) as it would reduce the film’s tensile strength due 3d. Moreover, this variation in the mechanical strength is due to the
to the formation of clay agglomerates (Luckham & Rossi, 1999). In our exfoliation and intercalation structure of the bentonite clay particle that
present study, 3% concentration of bentonite showed lower mechanical is dispersed in the starch matrix (Natália and Cristina, 2010, 2010).
properties; therefore, the results beyond 2.5% concentration of
bentonite were not discussed.
3.4. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
Similarly, the amount of bentonite in the film also affected Young’s
modulus, indicating the measure of the film’s resistance to deformation
The various functional groups of the developed bioplastic films were
(Fig. 3b). Similar to the tensile strength, Young’s modulus decreased on
analyzed using FTIR, as shown in Fig. 4. The FTIR graph observed the
the addition of bentonite (1.0%). However, further increase in bentonite
characteristic peaks of Taro starch and bentonite were observed, con­
concentration (2.5%) increased the Youngs modulus to 48.48 ± 8.32
firming the bentonite filler concentrations. All the bioplastic films had
MPa. The concentrations of glycerol influenced the Young’s Modulus in
peaked at the exact wavenumber but with varied intensity. The broad
Taro starch and the interaction between them. The elongation of break
absorption peak observed at 3280 cm− 1 indicate the hydroxyl group and
(%) was highest for bentonite concentration of 1.5% and marginally
H-bonded OH stretching of the Taro starch. The OH peak intensity
decreased with addition of bentonite (Fig. 3c). This may be due to the
increased after the addition of bentonite. This change in intensity sig­
glycerol concentration in the film that could influence the film’s me­
nifies the excellent dispersion of bentonite in the starch matrix. Its width
chanical properties. At lower glycerol concentrations, more starch-
is related to the inter and intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The peaks
starch hydrogen bonds were formed than starch-glycerol bonds. As
from 950 to 800 cm− 1 are attributed to the vibration of glycosidic
glycerol concentration increases, it weakens the intermolecular force
linkages in the starch group. This is in accordance with the characteristic
between starch-starch and increases the formation of starch-glycerol
FTIR peaks reported for Taro starch in the previous literature (Dutta,

4
M. Shanmathy et al.
Fig. 3. Influence of bentonite percentage on the mechanical property (a) Tensile strength and (b) Young’s modulus (c) Elongation at break%) and (d) A typical stress-
strain graph obtained for bioplastic film.
Fig. 4. FTIR spectra for bioplastic films.
Devi, Deka & Hauzel, 2018). The peak appears broadened due to the
absorption of water by starch granules. Peaks at 2940 cm− 1 denote
methyl C-H stretch, and 1055 cm− 1 represents C=O stretch in the pri­
mary alcohol (Coates, 2000). These functional groups confirm that all
the bioplastic films generated were due to the starch isolated from Taro
with minimal influence by the plasticiser (glycerol) and filler
5
Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173
(bentonite). The slight shift of peak from 1014 to 1009 cm− 1 was due to
the Si-O-Si attachment with the addition of bentonite (Zamrud, Ng &
Salleh, 2021). Peaks at 1005 cm− 1 attribute to Si-O-Si stretching due to
the presence of bentonite. Its intensity increases with BP2.5 than the
other films due to its high bentonite concentration (Oliveria, Rocha,
Silva & Bertolino, 2016). A similar peak can be observed in BP0 at a low
intensity which attributes to the C=O stretch in Taro starch. The
broadening of the peak intensity with the addition of bentonite in Taro
starch matrix indicates the interaction of the aluminium (Al) group from
bentonite with the OH group. The absorption band around 1638 cm− 1
corresponds to the OH vibration due to the presence of residual bonded
water molecules. The intensity of the peak increases as the concentration
of bentonite increases. The same peak with lower intensity is observed in
the BPO, corresponding to the hydrogen bonding at the starch matrix.
Thus, these following functional groups, such as OH and CO ester
groups, suggest that the Taro starch-based films have excellent biode­
gradability properties (Rusianto, Yuniwati, Wibowo & Akrowiah, 2019).
3.4. Swelling test
A swelling test performed on the films reported that starch-glycerol
systems swell more by absorbing more water than pure starch
(Sjöqvist, Boldizar & Rigdahl, 2010). It is evident from Fig. 5 that the
concentration of bentonite influences the swelling property of the film.
The sample with 2.5 wt% bentonite showed less swelling power,
whereas, in the film with 0.5 wt% bentonite, the swelling was highest
compared to the other films. The films with low bentonite concentration
resulted in more swelling than the film without bentonite (BP0). This
phenomenon can be explained by diffused double layer swelling, a
M. Shanmathy et al. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173

because the interlayer magnesium ions present in the bentonite are

significantly affected by high sodium content, which, in turn, modifies
the bentonite’s natural swelling and cation exchange capacity. The
swelling capacity of bentonite was reported to increase up to 7 fold in
alkaline solution (Maged, Kharbish, Ismael & Bhatnagar, 2020).
The bioplastic films behavior in weak acid was accessed by
immersing them in 10% acetic acid. From Fig. 6a, it can be analyzed that
the films were resistant to the acid. The increase in the weight of the
films was due to swelling. The weak acidic solution did not affect the
films as alkaline solution, confirming the resistance of the films to weak
acids.
The films were immersed in salt (10% NaCl) solution for 4 days. The
films remained intact and stable in the salt solution. From Fig. 6b, it can
be observed that the increase in bentonite concentration in the film had
a significant impact on the swelling behavior of the film. A two-fold
decrease in the swelling of the film BP1.5 can be noticed as compared
to film BP0. Nevertheless, with a further increase in bentonite concen­
tration, the increase in the weight of the film is significantly reduced. For
films with 2 wt% and 2.5 wt% of bentonite, the increase in weight was
less than 60%. This is due to the diffused double layer (DDL) swelling in
Fig. 5. Swelling behavior observed in the bioplastic films generated with
varying bentonite concentration.

characteristic behavior of bentonite in the presence of water. Bentonite

being negatively charged attracts dipolar water molecules onto its sur­
face (Puppala, Pedarla, Pino & Hoyos, 2017). Hence an increase in
swelling can be observed in films with lower bentonite concentrations.
However, the swelling was much lesser in films with increased bentonite
concentration such as BP1.5, BP2 and BP2.5. This is owing to the layered
fillers like bentonite, which facilitate the movement of water molecules
into its clay galleries, where the water molecules solvate the sodium ions
and the silicate anions on the surface (Shanks & Kong, 2012). This sol­
vation helps in stabilizing the system when swelling occurs. Films with
higher bentonite concentration remained stable and intact in water for 2
days. Thus increasing the bentonite concentration will improve the
film’s integrity as bentonite clay is negatively charged while starch
being positively charged. This attraction between the molecules will
reduce the dissociation of the films.

3.5. Effect of alkali, acid and salt

The behaviour of bioplastic films in alkali was accessed in NaOH

solution. The swelling of the films was too rapid to measure the weight
as they became slimy once immersed in NaOH solution. This behaviour
Fig. 7. Water vapor transmission rate studies for the bioplastic films.
was intensified with an increase in the amount of bentonite. This is

Fig. 6. Effect of (a) 10% acetic acid and (b) 10% NaCl on the bioplastic films with varied bentonite concentrations.

6
M. Shanmathy et al. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173

the presence of salt, which reduces the repulsive forces between the clay
particles as DDL thickness decreases (Ye, 2016). Reduction in this layer
minimizes the swelling of the film in weak acid and salt.

3.6. Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)

The water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) plays an essential role if

the material is used in packaging applications. The WVTR of the bio­
plastic films generated can be observed from Fig. 7. In this study, the
WVTR decreased with an increase in bentonite concentration in the film.
The WVTR for the film without the filler was 9.22002 × 10− 6 kg/m2 day
(0.01 g/m2 day approx.), whereas, for the film with 2.5 wt% bentonite,
it was 8.39175 × 10− 6 kg/m2 day (0.01 g/m2 day approx.). The mar­
ginal decrease with the addition of filler might be due to the convoluted
path formed by the uniformly dispersed bentonite in the film. The
convoluted path is the virtue of the layered silicate structures in
bentonite (Rhim et al., 2006). Some of the previously reported WVTR
values for food packaging materials are 0.57 g/m2day, 13.27 g/m2day,
respectively (Wu et al., 2017; Seong et al., 2020). A suggested value of
WVTR for packaging material is between 0.01 to 1 g/m2day (Spee, Rath
& Schropp, 2015). Therefore, the developed bioplastic films satisfy this Fig. 8. Contact angle measured for bioplastic films with different bentonite
requirement with the addition of bentonite reinforcement. concentrations.

3.7. Water contact angle

Contact angle measured for the films determines whether the nature
of the material generated is hydrophobic or hydrophilic. When water
comes in contact with the film, the angle formed by the water droplet
helps determine the wettability. For the bioplastic films generated, the
contact angle of the water droplet can be observed in Fig. 8. With the
increase in bentonite concentration, there was a significant increase in
the contact angle. The contact angle of the films without filler and with
2.5 wt% bentonite was 68.5 ± 5.19 and 134.46 ± 3.78, respectively.
From this, it is evident that there is a significant increase in hydropho­
bicity due to bentonite.

3.8. Soil biodegradation test

Soil degradation test was carried out using garden soil, and the
weight of the films was measured every day to determine the weight
loss. A graph is plotted between weight loss and time to study the soil
degradation rate (Fig. 9). The graph shows that the film without
bentonite (Film BP0) had a slower degradation initially but degraded
rapidly after 4 days. It was observed that 50% of BP0 sample has Fig. 9. Weight loss of bioplastic films in soil.
degraded at the end of 10 days. This might be due to the poor integrity of
the film, which would have led to rapid degradation. The samples with its reduced water absorption and water vapor transmission rate, rein­
bentonite exhibited a slower degradation as compared to films without forced bioplastic can be used for packaging applications and moulded to
bentonite. With the increase in bentonite concentration, the degradation thin films.
rate was lesser, indicating that the bioplastic films are more stable with
bentonite. This result stands as evidence to prove that the bioplastic Funding
films were biodegradable and environmentally friendly.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
4. Conclusion agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

In this study, bioplastic films were successfully generated from Declaration of Competing Interest
Colocasia esculenta (Taro) starch. The increase in bentonite concentra­
tion had an impact on the properties of the film. The films reinforced The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
with bentonite showed improved mechanical properties with a tensile interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
strength of 2.12 ± 0.03 MPa and Young’s modulus of 48.71 ± 3.875 MPa the work reported in this paper.
for the film with 2.5% bentonite. The bentonite reinforced bioplastic
films were found to be stable in water. All the films were vulnerable to Supplementary materials
an alkaline solution, whereas, in salt and acidic solutions, they remained
intact and were not affected. The films with bentonite were more stable Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
and degraded gradually in the soil than films without bentonite. From the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.carpta.2021.100173.
this study, it can be concluded that Taro starch can be used as a potential
source to produce bioplastic films by reinforcing with bentonite. Due to

7
M. Shanmathy et al. Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications 2 (2021) 100173

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