Methods of

philosophizing
Module 2
Methods of philosophizing

determining truth from opinion
• Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies
at heart of any inquiry. Knowledge must be truthful to gain
validity and acceptance. However, the concept of truth remains
a highly debated and much discussed topic among
philosophers. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or
value.
• Statements about the world or reality are called propositions
and these propositions may or may not carry truth. Propositions
are usually stated as short statements or sentences.
• Opinions are comprised of statements which not only
give facts but also provide conclusions or perspective
regarding certain situations. Opinions may advance a
belief about certain things or provide explanations.
• Arguments are a series of statements that provide
reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim
or opinion is truthful.
• Some arguments may contain fallacies.
• Opinions are often influence by bias.
What is truth and why is it important?
• Knowledge is important in determining truth. It is the clear
awareness and understanding of something.
• Facts are propositions or statements which are observe to be
real or truthful.
• Claim is not evidently or immediately known to be true.
• Truthful statements can be considered as based on facts.
Science considers truth as something observable and empirical.
Theories as basis in determining truth
1. Correspondence theory. States that something is true if it
corresponds to reality or the actual state of affairs. It assumes a
direct relationship between an idea and reality and that a statement
can be taken as "fact".
2. Coherence theory. It proposes that something is true if it makes
sense when place in a certain situation or context and has a certain
degree of consistency which renders it truthful.
3. Constructivist theory. It holds that knowledge is shaped by social
forces and influenced by culture and history. What is true,or what
the person considers true is shaped by his society and culture.
4. Concensus theory. This views knowledge as based on
agreement,and that something is true if almost everyone
agrees that it is true.

5. Pragmatic theory. It holds the view that something is true if

we can put it into practice or is useful in real life. It also
believes that ideas should be continually tested to confirm
their validity.
See figure below for further emphasis and demonstration

CORRESPON - truth is
DENCE measured
THEORY
through the
COHERENCE concept of
THEORY justification
CONSTRUCTI- Truth is
VIST THEORY measured
through the
CONSENSUS concept of
THEORY relativism.

Truth is
measured
PRAGMATIC through the
THEORY concept of
verification-
ism
What other things should we consider in determining
the truth or when looking at arguments or opinions
• Arguments often the form of statements that are either
claims of facts and are phrase in such a way that they
seem reasonable. However, number of arguments may
be based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of
arguments are called fallacy. Some of this fallacies may
be intentional, as the person making the claim is
desperate to convince you to accept his or her
argument.
• Fallacy is a defect in an argument/error in reasoning.
• To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the
arguments content.
Logical fallacies
1.UNQUALIFICATION GENERALIZATION (or Dicto
Simpliciter)

2.HASTY GENERALIZATION. Related to the

preceding,this is a conclusion drawn from too few
samples.

3.NAME CALLING (or Poisoning the Well or Ad

Hominem, i.e., argument attacking the man rather
than the issue).

4.APPEAL TO PITY (Ad Misericordiam).

5.AD POPULUM (appeal to the people, to what
they want to hear or to what they fear).

6.BANDWAGON APPEAL.

7.TESTIMONIAL (or association).

8.HYPOTHESIS CONTRARY TO FACT.

9.FAULTY CAUSE AND EFFECT (confusing

coincidental time sequence with genuine
causation, sometimes called POST HOC).
10.FALSE ANALOGY (or trying to PROVE a point by
analogy).

11.EITHER-OR (or the two-alternatives fallacy).

12.BEGGING THE QUESTION (or circular argument).

13.POISONING THE WELL

When looking at an Opinion

Be aware of bias or the personal views of the person

presenting it.

Biases are not necessarily errors in reasoning,but refer to

tendencies or influences which affect the views of
people.

Bias cannot be avoided in any discussion or debate.

What's important is that the people engaging in the
discussion are aware of their personal biases and have
an open but critical attitude toward other views which
conflict with their own.
• PRO - NNOVATION or ANTI-INNOVATION BIAS -tendency
to believe something is good (or bad) simply because it's
new.

• OUTCOME BIAS -tendency to evaluate a choice on the

basis of it's outcome rather than on the basis of what
information was available at the time.

• ANCHORING BIAS -tendency to focus too much on a

single piece of information rather than all available
information.

• AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC -it is the tendency to attach too

much weight to information that we happen to have
available to us, even if we've done no systematic research.
• CONFIRMATION BIAS -One of the most important biases! This is
a tendency to find evidence that supports what you already
believe or to interpret the evidence as supporting what you
already believe.
• BANDWAGONING -tendency to adopt the same beliefs as the
people around you.
• FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR -this is the tendency to
believe that your own successes are due to the effort and innate
talent.
• HALO EFFECT -the tendency perceive a person's attributes as
covering more areas than they actually do.
• MOOD-CONGRUENT MEMORY BIAS - tendency to recall
information that fits our current mood, or to memories through
that lens.
Video about philosophizing
Get a ¼ sheet of paper for a short quiz.
1.There are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
a.Bias
b.Conclusion
c.Explanation
d.Fallacies
2. Which of the following fallacies used emotions such as pity or
sympathy?
a.Ad hominem
b.Appeal to emotion
c.Appeal to tradition
d.Begging the question
3. What do we consider when looking at an opinion?
a.we should be critical in dealing with our views
b.we should be aware of the bias or the personal views of the
person presenting it.
c.we should analyze the errors in reasoning.
d.we should consider the influences which affect the views of
the people.
4. The following are the common biases EXCEPT:
a.Cause and effect
b.Conflict of interest
c.Framing
d.Hindsight
5. According to Greek philosophy, this is required in order to
establish something is true. This concept states that something
is true because you believe it to be true and is proven through the
use of senses or reasoning.
a.relativism
b.correspondence
c.justification
d.verification
6. This theory on the nature of knowledge and truth believes that
truth must conform to reality.
a.concensus theory
b.correspondence theory
c.coherence theory
d.pragmatic theory
7. What tendency is focus too much on a single piece of
information rather than all available information.
a.outcome bias
b.anchoring bias
c.availability heuristic
d.confirmation bias
8. What logical fallacies, Related to the preceding, this is a
conclusion drawn from too few samples?
a.name calling
b.hasty generalization
c.appeal to pity
d.ad papulum
9. What theory on the nature of knowledge the truth considers
truth as based on agreement.
a.concensus theory
b.correspondence theory
c.coherence theory
d.pragmatic theory
10. What theory considers something is true if it is useful and
verifiable?
a.consensus theory
b.correspondence theory
c.constructivist theory
d.pragmatic theory
11. What are usually stated as short statements or sentence?
a.knowledge
b.opinion
c.propositions
d.truth
12. Which of the following is can be considered as based on
facts?
a.knowledge
b.claim
c.facts
d.truthful statements
Ans.
1.D. 10.D
2.B. 11.C
3.B. 12.D
4.A
5.C
6.B
7.B
8.B
9.A