Test 2 Review

Quantitative Maps

 How do we translate data into information on a map?

o Generalization
o Symbolization
 Scale of Measurement
 Data type
 Surface geometry
o Dimensions of spatial data
 Thematic – data type
 Temporal – time period
 Spatial – location
o Data type
 Stocks – total population
 Flows – movement
 Area – Population density
 Lines – rivers, streets, boundaries
 Point – points from continuous surface
o Scale of Measurement
 Nominal – no numerical relationship
 Ordinal – order elements based on degree
 Interval – exact magnitudes relate to one another (no absolute zero)
 Ratio – measures relative to a zero point
o Surface Geometry
 Discrete – surface has elevation of zero except at data points
 Stepped – change in value at neighbourhood boundary
 Continuous – no sharp breaks in surface
 Stepped - population density
 Continuous - temperature
 Mapping Discrete Surfaces
o Point symbol maps
 Map discrete point data
 May use point symbols to represent area data (location is important)
 Types
 Pie charts/bar charts
 Dot maps
 Tourist maps
 Proportional symbols e.g. circles, squares
o Point Symbol Map
 Nominal data: use different colors/shapes to represent different types of features (e.g.
tourist maps)
 Ordinal data: Modify size or symbol for importance of location
 Interval/ratio: Dot maps/proportional symbols

o Dot Map advantages:

 Easy to understand
 Simple to compile
  Clearly shows location details and spatial distribution of the values
o Dot Map disadvantages:
 Do not show exact quantities (values)
 Limited to showing overall spatial patterns
 Not effective unless there are significant variations on density
o Dot size and dot value
 Dot size small then map hard to read and distribution is sparse
 Dot size to big then gives the impression of excessive density
 Dot value to small then will probably need lots of dots
 Dot value to big then some areas on map will have no dots
o Must be a balance between dot size and value
o Select relevant dot size and value for each map
o Nomograph
 Developed by J. Ross Mackay
 Choose three sample areas having low, average, and high density
 Calculate # of dots per square cm required for low and high density spots
 Use nomograph to determine dot size
o Proportional Symbols map
 Shows location and magnitude of data at each location
 Ordinal data – fixed symbol sizes for each class
 Interval or ratio data – scale symbol so size proportional to data value
 Proportional symbol scaling
 1D symbol
o E.g. bar graph
o Length of bar proportional to data value
 2D symbol
o E.g. circles, squares
o Area of symbol proportional to data value
o Proportional symbol scaling
 3D symbols
 E.g. spheres, cubes
 Volume of symbol proportional to data value
o Volumetric symbols
 Can accommodate larger range of values
o Multivariate symbols
 Display several related variables at once
o Conclusion
 Easy to understand
 Simple in concept
 Need lots of care and judgement to be effective

 Mapping Continuous surfaces

o Surface initially represented by sample of control points
o Represent graphically using isolines
o Isoline concept – series of equally spaced horizontal slices through surface
 o Isarithms
 Two types
 Isometric lines based on data collected at specific points
 Isometric lines based on arbitrary points
o Data pertains to areas
 Interpolation
 Estimate surface elevations from control points
 Assume even gradient between control points
 Characteristics of isolines
 Closed loops
 Isolines never cross
 Constant interval
 Choropleth maps
o Used to represent data collected for statistical units such as municipalities, census divisions
o Observations are usually a ratio
o Group observations into classes
 Nominal – ungraded patterns
 Ordinal, interval, ratio – graded series
 Shading Patterns
o Graded series
 Use shades of one color
 Darker shade implies higher value
 Lighter shade implies lower value
 Choropleth map colors
o Color schemes
 Qualitative – nominal data
 Each category gets a unique, unrelated color
 Sequential – ordinal, interval, ratio
 One color used going from light to dark
 Diverging
 Two color ramps using two colour hues
 Classification methods
o Equal intervals
 Divide range of data values into classes
 May be difficult to compare maps and hide much variation in data
o Equal intervals based on mean and standard deviation
o Nested means
 Divide distribution into 2 groups
o Quantiles
 Sort data value from lowest to highest
  Useful for comparing distributions based on rank order
o Convenient Round number
 Cover full ranges of data values
 May be difficult to compare maps
o Arithmetic series
 Class interval increase by constant amount as move from lowest to highest
o Geometric series
 Class interval increase by constant ratio
 Useful for skewed distributions
o Natural breaks
 Useful for single variable but difficult to compare maps
 Choropleth map design
o Number of classes
o Classification method
o Colours or patterns
 Unclassed choropleth maps
o Avoid misinterpretation due to poor choice of classification scheme
o Computer mapping
 Choropleth map
o Based on pre-determined boundaries, data values are grouped into 4-6 classes represented by a
graded series of colour

Terrain Representation

 Topographic maps
o Maps that portray the shape or form of the land surface
 The challenge
o Accuracy is dependent on measurement level
o Visualize landform morphology
o Conflict between metric accuracy and visual realism
o Multiple techniques can be used in combination
 Historical terrain representation
o Graphical
 Small scale
 Inaccurate
o Hachuring
 Lines follow slope
o Spot heights
 Sample points of known elevation based on survey
 Represented on terrain by
o Monuments
o Iron bar
o Brass plate
o Contours
 Isolines (lines of equal elevation)
 Types of contours
 Index contours (bold)
 Intermediate contours
  Supplementary contours
o Dash lines in flat areas
 Depression contours
o Pits
 Carrying contours
 Approximate contours (on glaciers)
o Choice of contours
 Depend on character of the terrain
 Optimal contour map
o Require
 Accurate ground survey
 Horizontal and vertical control
 Accurate photogrammetry
 Accuracy standards
o Alternative methods to enhance visualization of landscape morphology
 Hill shading – effective in areas of high relief
 Layer tinting – shade each contour with different colour
 Block diagrams – Perspective views from surface
 Cliff and rock shading – represent complex features
 Slope and aspect maps
o Best terrain maps use combination of techniques
 Contours
 Spot heights
 Relief shading and/or layer tints
 Colour – to simplify detail
 Associated features

Map Design

 Cartographic Abstraction
o Can’t represent all features from the earths surface on a map
o Depending on what is being mapped different features are chosen
 The resolution of your data influences, and is influenced by, the geographic and cartographic scales (GIS
and internet mapping software can handle this automatically)
o E.g. web maps, census data, satellite images, street networks
 Objectives of Generalization
o Reduce complexity
o Maintain spatial accuracy
o Maintain attribute accuracy
o Maintain aesthetic quality
o Maintain logical hierarchy
o Avoid:
 Congestion
 Coalescence
 Conflict
 Complication
 Cartographic Abstraction
o Selection
 Determine geographic features and attributes to be represented on map
o Generalization
 Simplify features to eliminate unnecessary detail
o Classification
 Simplify attribute data
o Symbolization
 Select colours, patterns, symbols used to represent simplified features and attributes
 Design Considerations
o Map purpose
o Audience
o Topic
o Format and scale
o Production/reproduction methods
 Goals of map design
o Clarity
o Visual contrast – make map interesting
o Figure-Ground Relationship – what do you notice first
o Hierarchy – depends on purpose
o Balance – overall layout of map
 Conceptual clarity
o Based on careful analysis of objectives
 Visual Clarity
o Based on appropriate choice of symbols
 Improve Clarity by:
o Avoid overlapping symbols/names
o Lettering
o Legend
o Colours
 Visual Contrast
o Need contrast to give eye a focal point and make map more interesting
 Figure-Ground relationship
o Used to contrast
 Thematic map vs base map
  Land vs water
o This relationship is enhanced by:
 Differentiation
 Closed forms
 Small areas
 Articulation
 Map elements
o Subject area
o Title
o Legend
o Scale
o Orientation
o Other info (i.e. data source, date, …)
o Inset maps
 Locate subject area
 Magnify a portion of the map
 Show related information
o Lettering on Maps
 Identify:
 Map content
 Symbolization
 Map scale
 Important features
 Text considerations
 Font/style/size/form/placement
 Keep it simple
 Try not to use more then two font families
 Use a mask to avoid overprinting
 Hue, Value, Chroma
o Hue
 Summarized on the colour wheel
 The colours we perceive
o Value
 How dark/light a colour is
o Chroma
 Intensity
 Separate the shades of the colour(s) on the legend
 Warm
o Longer wavelengths
 Cool
o Shorter wavelengths
 Colour preferences
o Children prefer warmer and highly saturated colours
 Avoid dull colours
 Avoid grey scale
 Go with the obvious (i.e. blue for water, green for forest)
o Adults
 Prefer colours to stand out from the background especially that of objects
  Background colours should be either light or dark
 Colour on maps
o Function
 Simplify
 Improve perceptibility
 Illicit a reaction
o Develop and group figures and grounds
 Brighter colours for smaller areas
 Warm colours advance
 Cool colours recede
o Colour Contrast - Leads to clarity
 Hue
 Value (light – dark)
 Cold/warm
 Complementary colours
o For choropleth maps
 Use sequential shades of one hue where darker hues are associated with higher values
 Use diverging shades of two hues where lighter steps diverge from the midpoint

Accuracy

 We must be careful not to assume that spatial data is accurate

 Data should be
o Reliable
o Current
o Relevant
 Categories for assessing data quality
o Lineage
o Positional accuracy
o Attribute accuracy
o Logical consistency
o Completeness
 Accuracy
o How closely the data matches true values
o Applies only to base map features

 Precision
o How exactly data is measured
o Can also refer to consistency of measurements
 Error
o Deviation between measured value and true value
 Types of errors
o Inherent errors
 GIS data contains variety of errors
 Positional, attribute, logical errors
 Completeness
o Operational errors
  Associated with collection, management, and processing of geospatial data
o Both types of errors occur at the same time
o Operational errors
 Systematic errors
 Human bias, mechanical or calibration problems. Cannot be detected by
repeated measurements
 Random error
 Caused by limitations in human operator or instrument. Usually small and tend
to cancel out in large samples
o Sources of operational error
 Base map complication
 Data automation and compilation
 Data processing and analysis
 Uncertainty
o Cause by incomplete knowledge of the data
 Accuracy standards
o Horizontal accuracy
 Dependent upon published map scale
 Larger then 1:20000
o Vertical accuracy
 Not more than 10% of the points tests shall be in error
 NTDB (National Topographic Data Base)
o Currently divided into two resolution classes
 Territories located in urban or rural areas generally available at resolution close to
topographic maps at 1:50000 scale
 Urban area
o Inhabited part of the Canadian landmass with a high population
density
 Rural area
o Inhabited part of the Canadian landmass with a low population
density
 Territories located in isolated areas are available at resolution of maps at the 1:250000
scale
o NTDB aims to attain accuracy at
 Urban area:
 A circular map accuracy standard (CMAS) of 10 meters is the accuracy for data
in urban areas.
 Rural area:
 A CMAS of 25 meters is established as the accuracy for data in rural areas.
 Isolated area:
 A CMAS of 125 meters is established as the accuracy for data in isolated areas.
 Standard lines
o Points of contact between reference globe and developable surface point of no scale distortion
o Distortion increases the further away from a standard line
o Mercator map projection:
 Preserves shape/distorts area
o Equal area map projection
 Preserves area/distorts shape
  Scale Factor
o Scale factor is the ratio of actual map scale to principal map scale

 Scale factor Calculation

o measure length of 1 degree of latitude or 1 degree of longitude at any point on the map
o determine ground distance represented by 1 degree of latitude or 1 degree of longitude
o calculate actual scale as ratio of map distance to ground distance
o calculate scale factor as ratio of actual scale to principal scale of the map
 note: dividing a fraction by a fraction so invert and multiply
 Scale Factor example
 Visualizing Uncertainty
o Lines and polygons
 Utilize buffers to depict levels of certainty
o Fuzzy datasets
 Visualizing uncertainty associated with remote sensing of land use
 Spatial Accuracy issues
o Metadata
 Metadata standards reference a single map or dataset
o Correcting spatial errors can create topological errors
 Lying with maps
o Use maps as propaganda
 Soviet topographic maps
 Systematic and deliberate errors and omissions regarding sensitive military sites,
and other sites, were made during the cold war

Online mapping and Geographic Visualization

 Online tools offer new opportunities to map users

o Users can zoom in/out to reveal details of the map at different scales
o The ability to present multiple, customized, views of a database
o Interactivity with map elements
 Cartography
 Internet GIS
o Software tool to facilitate the visualizations of data
 Types of maps
o Simple static maps
 No interactivity
 Data is inaccessible
 Often .jpg, .gif, .pdf
o Basic interactive maps
 Load different layers of information
 Data is inaccessible – outside of applications
 Navigation/zooming control
o Interactive maps with visualization/analysis and/or data analysis
 More resources intensive
 Location and routing features
 More computer science based maps
o Participatory – web 2.0
 Users can contribute to the map
 Discussion based
 Open street map (volunteered geographic information
 Map mashups
o Combination of two or more databases or tools into a new application
o Can be static or live

 Web 1.0 “the mostly read-only Web”

o Read
o Consume
 o Computer based
o Top-down
o Hard disk
 Web 2.0 “the widely read-write Web”
o Read/write/network
o Open source
o In the cloud
o Niche market
o Consume and publish
 Techniques for assuring data quality
o Crowd-sourcing approach
o Social approach
o Geographic approach
 Components of the Geoweb
o Tools
 Digital earth
o Development libraries
 Allow incorporation of maps into websites
 Google maps, leaflet, openlayers
 Data (Basemaps)
 Government data source
 Private data source
