Beauty and The Mughals Nur Jahan

1
Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan
Zoya Mehmood
UG III
Presidency University
2
Zoya Mehmood
Dissertation submitted to the Department of History, Presidency University,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
PRESIDENCY UNIVERSITY
86/1 COLLEGE STREET
KOLKATA—700073
3
30 May 2016
Head of the Department
Department of History
Presidency University, Kolkata
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Dissertation titled “ Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan” submitted by
Zoya Mehmood in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR
OF ARTS is her original work and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree of this
university or of any other university.
We therefore recommend that the university may accept the dissertation.
_________________________ ____________________________
Supervisor Head of the Department
(Sajjad Alam Rizvi) (Mridu Rai)

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NAME- ZOYA MEHMOOD
CLASS- HISTORY UG 3 SEM 6
ROLL NO- 85
COURSE- Sessional 4 HIST0682
Supervisor- Prof. Sajjad Alam Rizvi
Dissertation topic-
50 Marks
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Content
Abstract 6
Hypothesis 7
Chapters 1 The Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetics 8-30
1.1 Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetic- Sources and inspiration
1.1.1 Islamic influence
1.1.2 Role of Persians in Mughal Beauty and Aesthetic
1.1.3 Indian/Hindu Influence
1.1.4 Christian and European influence
1.1.5 The Imperial Harem and the Royal Ladies
Chapter 2 Nur Jahan’s Contribution to Mughal Beauty and Aesthetics 31-46
2.1 Moving Beyond the Harem
2.1.1 Domestic Art

2.1.2 Painting
2.1.3 Patronage to Architecture and Garden
Chapter 3 Decoding Mughal Perception of Beauty 47-51
3.1 Mughal Women and Aesthetic Beauty
3.2 Interlinking of Sovereignty and Aesthetic Beauty
3.3 The Centrality of Mughal Harem and its Residents
3.4 Nur Jahan as the ‘Self’
Conclusion 52
Bibliography 53-55
Image source 56-57

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Abstract
This dissertation focuses on the beauty and aesthetic ethos of the Mughal Empire from the
perception and contribution of an important royal woman- Nur Jahan. The paper will explore,
analyze and evaluate the aspects and sources and inspirations of the concept of Mughal beauty
and aesthetics- Persian influence, Indian/Hindu sources, Christian inspiration as well as the
inspiration from the Mughal Imperial harem and how the Mughal used it in their patronage and
formation of art and architecture. With the help of these, the aim is to decode the beauty and
aesthetic perception of Nur Jahan and her patronages and contributions to Mughal visual
beauty, how she was using the existing themes and how she added new ones. With her
patronages she was working towards the welfare and betterment of women not only inside the
harem but for all the women in general, turning them from passive subject of the society to an
active member. Finally we will find out how by her patronage and contribution, Nur Jahan was
asserting her presence in the Mughal Empire and getting her voice heard in history, to be called
the Empress of Mughal India.
~***~
Fig 1 Idealized Portrait of the Mughal Empress Nur Jahan, Kishangarh, Rajasthan, India, circa 1725-
1750, Opaque watercolor and gold on paper
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Hypothesis
In the Mughal concept and contribution to beauty and aesthetic, royal women of the Imperial
harem also played a significant role along with the male counterpart; important among them
was Queen Nur Jahan. Nur Jahan through her sheer merit and patronages emerged as a
powerful woman of her age. In the theme of beauty of the Mughal, she played an important
role. She asserted herself as the sovereign ‘self’ moving beyond the passive voice with the help
of visual politics. She interlinked Mughal sovereignty and aesthetic which was done by the
Mughal Emperors. She brought the harem and its resident in the centre of the Mughal political
and cultural structure.
The aspects of Mughal aesthetic and beauty helped her inspire and added to her creativity. By
analyzing in detail about the sources and inspiration of Mughal beauty as well as Nur’s
personal contribution to it, we will get a better idea on her assertion of ‘self.’ For this study I
have used primary sources like literary accounts of the courtiers and travelers before and during
Emperor Jahangir’s reign like Gulbadan Begum, Abul Fazl, Pelsaert and Jahangir himself as
well as paintings such as portraits and miniatures by famous artists like Ustad Mansur, Abd al
Samad, that gives a detailed idea about the works, patronages, lifestyle, costumes, jewelry of
the Emperor and the Empress. Adding to this is the secondary sources by the authors who have
worked extensively on Islamic and Mughal art, architecture and culture like Oleg Greber,
Catherine Asher as well as Ruby Lal’s informative work on the Mughal Harem and Ellison
Findly’s work on Nur Jahan. These authors not only have given required information but also
their personal views on said subjects were helpful for this research. Being a paper on Mughal
beauty and aesthetic, the ideas and themes are conceived mainly by social and cultural history
though political history was not ignored.
~***~
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Chapter 1
The Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetics
Beauty can be consoling, disturbing, sacred, and profane; it can be exhilarating, appealing,
inspiring, and chilling. It can affect us in an unlimited variety of ways. Yet it is never viewed
with indifference: beauty demands to be noticed. If there are people who are indifferent to
beauty, then it is surely because they do not perceive it. Yet judgments of beauty concern
matters of taste, and maybe taste has no rational foundation. 1 Appreciating beauty and beautiful
objects, irrespective of whether the same is natural or represents the artistic expressions
generated by men, is intrinsic in all humans.2
Artistic Beauty replaced natural beauty as the core subject-matter of aesthetics only in the
course of the nineteenth century, and in the wake of Hegel’s posthumously published lectures
on aesthetics.3 Aesthetics is ‘the branch of philosophy that examines the nature of art and the
character of our experience of art and of the natural environment. 4 Aesthetics can also be
‘applied’ in the sense that its object of examination can be a specific and concrete work of art,
not only an artistic concept or question.
Whatever the definitions of beauty and the criteria for it, they all stem from certain
philosophies and principles which shape not only one’s conception and appreciation of beauty,
but also one’s total outlook on life.5 The major Islamic philosophers, whose works are
important for this thesis, produced no works dedicated to aesthetics, although their writings do
address issues that contemporary philosophers might study under that heading. The nature of
beauty was addressed by Islamic philosophers in the course of discussions about God and his
attributes in relation to his creation.62
1
Roger Scruton, Beauty (Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2009) preface
2 Spahic Omer Islam and the Ontology of Beauty, Source: IslamiCity
3 Roger Scruton, Beauty (Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 2009)
4 Robert Audi, ed., The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), p.10
5 Spahic Omer Islam and the Ontology of Beauty, Source: IslamiCity
2
6 Deborah L. Black, Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy (Routledge, 1998)
http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H020
7 Al-Farabi, al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City), ed. and trans. R. Walzer, Al-Farabi on the Perfect State,
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985)
9
These philosophers like al Ghazali, al Farabi, Ibn Sina were inspired by the works of Aristotle
and Plato in their consideration of artistic beauty and creativity. Islamic philosophers developed
the theme of the differences between sensible and intelligible beauty; and the love and pleasure
associated with each. The notion of intelligible beauty is included in the discussion of the
names and attributes of God contained in al-Farabi's al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City).
Among the divine names al-Farabi lists 'beauty' (al-jamal), 'brilliance' (al-baha'), and
'splendour' (al-zina).7 Although the connotations of these terms are principally visual and hence
sensible, al-Farabi argues that beauty in all things is primarily ontological: the more any being
attains its final perfection, the more beautiful it is.8
Beauty was appreciated and affected the Mughals too. The Mughals had great sense of
aesthetic value and were great art lovers. Their artistic contribution is profound in the world of
Islamic art.9 As mentioned in the definition, beauty was perceived differently because of
different tastes and judgments but it was never overlooked. The Mughals too never ignored
beauty- both physical as well as metaphysical. The aim of this dissertation is to look into this
physical manifestation of beauty- the aesthetic part of it which the Mughals perceived through
their various patronages to art and architecture. Both men and women patronized and
contributed to Mughal aesthetic and beauty principles. Queen Nur Jahan was one such
important woman in Mughal as well as Islamic history who conversed through her patronages
and added more to the beauty of the Mughals than it already was.
Mughal Empire being an Islamic kingdom, their art fell under the larger framework of Islamic
art. Islamic Art is a modern concept, created by art historians in the nineteenth century to
categorize and study the material first produced under the Islamic peoples that emerged from
Arabia in the seventh century. Today Islamic Art describes all of the arts that were produced in
the lands where Islam was the dominant religion or the religion of those who ruled. Islamic art
is not used merely to describe religious art or architecture, but applies to all art forms produced
in the Islamic World, created by artists and craftsmen belonging to different regions and
9 William Dalrymple , Art treasures of the Mughal Empire

http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/nov/30/art-treasures-of-mughal-Empire
10
religions. Islamic art is an artificial term with a very modern use. The different groups of art
fell under it, did not know they were Islamic art. Thus the Mughals did not know their art as
Islamic art.103
From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Mughals dominated South Asia, and they
took their art seriously. The Mughals, perhaps more than any other Islamic dynasty, made their
love of the arts, their aesthetic principles a central part of their identity as rulers. When Babur
conquered India, the first thing he noticed was the barren and bland, lacking artistic beauty. He
then laid out many beautiful gardens so as to make the subcontinent suitable for his living. The
second Mughal Emperor, Humayun lured several Persian masters to his court from Persia and
central Asia. His son, the Emperor Akbar, did the same and emphasized that he had no time for
ultra-orthodox Muslim opinion, which objected to the depiction of the human form and stated
clearly his despise for men who did not like painting as noted down by Abul Fazl. Jahangir too
loved his art and was one of the greatest patrons of art in the Mughal Empire and patronized the
likes of Abul Hasan as he mentions him in his autobiography, the Jahangirnama. Shah Jahan
amalgamated love and beauty with his famous architectural work, the Taj Mahal for his
beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
But what drew famous craftsmen, artisans and great painters like Farrukh Husain from Persia to
Mughal service was less the good taste of the Emperors than their incredible wealth. The
Mughals were not just enthusiasts of the arts – they also had unrivalled resources with which to
patronize them. They ruled over five times the population commanded by the Ottomans – some
hundred million subjects – controlling almost all of what are now India, Pakistan and
Bangladesh, as well as eastern Afghanistan.114
3
10 Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art
islam/beginners-guide-islamic/a/arts-of-the-islamic-world
4
11
Fig 2 Jahangir in Darbar by Abul Hasan, from the Jahangir-nama, c. 1620. Gouache on paper.
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1.1 Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetic- Sources and inspiration
Mughal principle of beauty and aesthetic had different sources of inspiration that made its art
and architecture as it is seen today. They gave a new vigor and vision to Mughal art and made
its beauty more profound and appealing. For better understanding of the art and architecture
patronized by Queen Nur Jahan, it is important to analyze these sources and inspiration of the
Mughal art which were prevalent in the Empire and how the Queen was affected by it and what
new changes she made and themes she found. It is vital to understand the Mughal concept of
beauty and aesthetic, what inspired it, how it was patronized under the Mughal Emperors to
understand how the Mughal women especially Nur Jahan perceived beauty and aesthetic and
her role and contribution in the Mughal harem and in the overall field of art and architecture. It
is here that Mughal art and architecture, the beauty of it came to be understood through various
processes and ideas. Their aesthetic notion can be taken as the centre of the Mughal culture as
they became the patrons of beauty. Here the Mughals comprised of Mughal royal men and
women, whose understanding of beauty found its way through their patronage to the grand
structures they made and the artists whose arts they possessed.
The elements of inspiration and influence are Islamic notion of beauty and aesthetic, Persian
influence, Hindu and Indian local contribution, European role in Mughal aesthetic and finally
the role of Imperial harem which was not only a part of Mughal beauty but also inspired the
aesthetic principles of the Mughal Empire.
1.1.1 Islamic influence
Mughal art and architecture like other Islamic art was not a monolithic style or movement, it
was created through global and local synthesis by the artists and artisan who were patronized
not only by Muslims but by Jews, Christians, Hindus and patrons of other religion as well.
There are no set of rules and doctrines about Islamic notion of aesthetic like in the western
world. 125
5
12 Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis,, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art
13
But Islamic art has certain themes which all Muslim Empires one way or the other was
influenced by. The religion of Islam was an important source of inspiration. 13 The phrase
“because Allah is beautiful, He loves beauty, and He is the source of all beauty” 14 is taken
seriously by the artist who tried to beautify the world to be closer to Allah. Quran and paradise
are used as a source of influence in the construction of the Mughal architecture, in gardens,
mosques and other structures, trying to make the proximity of the worldly Empire with that of
the heavenly one in order to legitimize their rule as well as formulating new definition of
aesthetic beauty.15
Though aesthetic theory is absent in Islam, the Quran does mention artistic beauty in Sura al
Naml (Qur’an 27:15-44) which is talking about the “artistic” meeting of Prophet king Solomon
and Queen of Sheeba.16 King Solomon has a special place in the Mughal architectural
intervention. Solomon’s multi columned halls and his throne inspired the Mughals particularly
Jahangir and Shah Jahan to build the same for themselves in Delhi and Agra. This was done to
invoke the memory of Solomon so that the Mughal subjects will equate the rule of their
Emperor with that of King Solomon’s just rule.176
Other themes were the use of Quran as an inspiration for calligraphy which were found in texts
and in various Mughal structure, geometric and vegetative patterns famous all over Muslim
world, from Safavid Iran to Mughal India.187
6
14 Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said: “Allah is beautiful and He loves beauty.” [Sahīh Muslim (911)]
15 Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art

16 Hugh Honour, John Fleming, A World History of Art, (Laurence King Publishing, London, 2005) Ch 8
17 Catherine Asher, The New Cambridge History of India, I : 4 Architecture of Mughal India (Cambridge
University Press, 2008) p 114
7
14
Fig 3 Jahangiri quadrangle inspired by Solomonic multi columned halls, Daulat Khana-e Jahangiri, Lahore Fort
Complex, Lahore, Pakistan
The only controversial debate of the Islamic notion of beauty and aesthetic is the representation
of living beings. Though Oleg Graber mentions that Quran does not say anything about the
15
prohibition of representational art198, but the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad as

mentioned in the Hadiths becomes the source of the expression of the Muslim attitude towards
this representation. In Hadith- Bukhari (4:448), narrated Abu Talha,
“I heard Allah's Apostle saying; "Angels (of Mercy) do not enter a house wherein there is a dog
or a picture of a living creature (a human being or an animal)." This as well as other narrations
talked about how prophet detested representation of living beings as Allah is the only creator of
them.20
Fig 4 The Delhi Gate flanked by two stone elephants, Red Fort, Delhi, Representation of living beings in
Mughal architecture,
It can also be said that iconography and iconoclasm can be seen possessing along with
religious, political motive too. For asserting control over non Muslim regions and legitimizing
themselves Muslim rulers engaged themselves in iconoclasm. And for legitimacy too, the rulers
incorporated iconographic art too as to please and the incorporate the different subjects as was
done by the Mughals. Also the permissive attitude formed with the localization of Empire’s
religion and with it, its art, like the liberal and permissive attitude of Iran because of the Shi’i
heterodoxy as opposed to the Sunni orthodoxy. The Mughals were Sunnis too but also had
8
19 Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art ( Yale University Press, 1978) p 75
20 Quran and Hadith on Images Defining Islamic Art http://themuslimartist.blogspot.in/2007/12/quran-and-
hadith-on-images.html
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Persian heritage. Representational art which gained a localized permissive attitude was not
frowned upon.219
The representational art was inspired by the Persians, Europeans and Hindus. Some Mughal
artists became ardent student of physiognomy. Portraiture of Emperors and other royal became
famous. This was because of the synthesis of foreign and local art. 22 Paintings were more
personalized and gained an intricate position in the private chambers of the Mughals.
Architecture was used as conversers with the subjects of the Empire, declaring the sovereignty
and power of each Mughal Emperors or their begums or relatives, whoever patronized it.
Fig 5 Babur, 16th C, Author- unknown
The Mughals were also inspired by philosophy and their concept of beauty. The Mughals
incorporated philosophy in their ideology and aesthetic principle. The Emperors as well as the
artists were seeking to be closer to divinity and possess the divine love. The intelligible beauty
is very well clear in Mughal aesthetic. The beauty of the names of Allah has found its way in
9
21 Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art ( Yale University Press, 1978) p 75
22 Mughal Court Artists, 1546-1627 http://dissertationreviews.org/archives/7177

17
the designs of various Mughal structures. Following al Farabi’s ideas, the Mughals also were
perfectionist, trying to make their art more beautiful. Doing so they were trying to be closer to
the divine and trying to achieve an ‘other worldly’ experience as well as seeking pleasure from
their works in this world and declaring themselves closer to the divine as an act of maintaining
their sovereignty. Also in their philosophy the Mughals like Akbar is defending
representational art too. As noted by Abul Fazl, “ a painter had a quite peculiar means of
recognizing God; for a painter in sketching anything that has life, and in devising its limbs, one
after the other, must come to feel that he cannot bestow individuality upon his work, and is thus
forced to think of God, the giver of life." 23 It is one of the most eloquent defenses of portraiture
in the history of Islamic art.24
1.1.2 Role of Persians in Mughal Beauty and Aesthetic
The Mughals were Persianized Turks who had invaded from Central Asia and claimed descent
from both Timur and Chingiz Khan and they really strengthened the Persian culture in India.
Persian aesthetics added a new vigor to the beauty of the Mughal art. Mughal Emperors
cultivated art in the Persian style, enticing to their Courts Persian artists and architects coming
from Tabriz, Shiraz, Herat, and other cities of the Iranian plateau. Apart from a number of
Persian nobles, administrators, and soldiers, there were painters, calligraphers, architects,
musicians, poets, physicians and people with diverse skills who immigrated to India during the
Mughal regime.2510 The Safavids had occupied the city of Herat in 1510 A.D. and made it their
prominent centre of arts. Mughal rulers introduced the manufacture, and brought craftsmen
from Shiraz, Baghdad and Samarqand. These Persian brought with them different artistic
innovations and designs which were quickly and dramatically transformed under the impetus of
the Indian artistic environment and taste. Persian art was a composite art which was created for
the royal fancy.2611 One of the important works of Persian literature and art was Ferdowsi’s
10
23 Abul Fazl Allami, The Aín i Akbari, trans, H. Blochmann, M.A. and Colonel H. S. Jarrett (the Asiatic society
of Bengal. Calcutta, the Baptist Mission Press, 1873 – 1907)

http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H020 25 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society
25 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/343S-7.pdf
11
26 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/343S-7.pdf
18
Shahnameh. Other books on Persian aesthetics are Risala Roohi Sharif on Sufism by Sultan ul
Arifeen Hazrat Sakhi Sultan Bahoo and modern book by Khaled Abou El Fadl that gives us
information on Persian art and its influences.
Fig 6 Bizhan receives an invitation through Manizheh's nurse, folio from the Shahnameh or Book of Kings
of Shah Tahmasp, 1525-30 of Ferdowsi
Persian was the official means of communication in Mughal Empire and with the language, the
art of calligraphy was also introduced in India. A number of master calligraphists were
employed in the Mughal Court; among these calligraphists, several were Persians like Mir Ali
Tabrizi.27
19
Fig 7 An album of Nasta'liq Calligraphy, Mir Ali Tabrizi, Style: Nas-Taliq, Timurid Period
The influence of Persian on Mughal painting is profound. The Mughals loved paintings and it
was essentially a court art where rulers, most importantly Akbar and Jahangir, gave patronage
to the painters and because of them the art of painting thrived. The painting styles associated
with Tabriz, Shiraz, Herat, and Bukhara and elsewhere represent variants of a Persian tradition
of painting. Most important being the Miniature paintings which were also introduced by the
Persians and which became an important source for the study on Mughal harem. Herat was the
greatest Persian miniature painting centre of the Timurid period, but in 1507 A.D. after its
capture by the Safavids, the leading artists immigrated to Mughal India during the first half of
sixteenth century A.D. Safavid master trained under Bihzad such as Dus Muhammad, Abd-al-
Samad, Mir Musawwir and Mir Sayyid Ali all went to work for Mughal patrons in India.2812
12
27 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society, p 259
28 S.M Ikram, History of Muslim in Civilization in India and Pakistan, Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture,
2000., p.669.
20
Fig 8 Princes of the House of Timur, done for Humayun, and added to under later Emperors to update the
family tree. By Mir Sayyid Ali
In addition to this, architecture was another field where Persian influence notably enriched the
Indo-Mughal tradition. A new architecture developed in India, a combination of Indian ideals
and Persian inspiration, and Delhi and Agra were covered with noble and beautiful buildings
which bear testimony of cultural advancement. Of many arts and decorative elements adopted
by the Mughals for embellishing the interior and exterior of their buildings; just to mention
mosaic tile, mirror work and calligraphy are essentially of Persian origin or reached the Sub-
continent through Persia Mughal architecture developed through a process of correct
assimilation with the Indo-Persian traditions, which resulted in the most significant monuments
of harmonious blending and fusion of the two cultures.2913
Persian designs in terms of gardening also came to India, the ‘Chaharbag’ gardening being the
one.30 Persian carpets and rugs also became famous in India. The characteristic features of the
13
29 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society , p 279
21
Persian carpets of the Mughal and Safavid periods which reached their height of excellence in
the sixteenth century A.D. were animals, flowers, and ornamental designs.31
1.1.3 Indian/Hindu Influence
The Mughals were influenced by art that was already present in the Indian subcontinent. One of
them was the art of the Delhi sultanate, the last of which were uprooted by the Mughals to
establish their own Empire in India. The art of the Delhi Sultanate witness the beginning of the
process of absorption and Indianization of the techniques of art and architecture brought from
the west when comparing it with the Mughal art which is considered to be fully matured Indo-
Islamic art.3214
But if the Mughals represented Islamic rule at its most magnificent, they also defined Islam at
its most open-minded, tolerant, and syncretic. Unlike the Ottomans or the Safavids, who ruled
largely Muslim polities, the Mughal Empire was effectively built in partnership with India’s
Hindu majority, and succeeded as much through diplomacy as by brute force: Akbar strove for
the reconciliation of his Hindu and Muslim subjects, and managed to unite them in the service
of a coherent multi-religious state.33
Along with influencing the Hindu aesthetic principle and perception of beauty, the Mughals
were also influenced by the Hindus. The beauty of Hindu paintings and sculpture influenced
the Mughal art and architecture deeply. The representational art in painting and architecture
were inspired by its Hindu counterparts. 34 Also presence of women in painting and architecture
were introduced by Nur Jahan after being inspired by the Hindu works. The Rajput miniature
paintings were influenced by the Mughal ones.35
14

31 Ibid, p 261
http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/nov/30/art-treasures-of--Empire
33 William Dalrymple, The Most Magnificent Muslims http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2007/11/22/the-most-
magnificent-muslims/
34 Margaret Richardson, Synthesis and Symbiosis: Akbar’s Aesthetic Vision for India
22
In carpets and rugs, aside from patterns in the Persian manner, a series of distinctively Indian
designs were developed, including scenic and landscape carpets; and several magnificent
prayer rugs with a prominent central flowering plant.3615
15
35 Rajput Painting of the Mughal Period, Boundless Art History
https://www.boundless.com/art-history/textbooks/boundless-art-history-textbook/south-and-southeast-asia-after-
1200-ce-28/the-mughal-period-178/rajput-painting-of-the-mughal-period-664-10808/

23
Fig 9 Vasant Ragini, Rajput Ragamala – Bundi, Rajasthan, c. 1660. Indian miniature painting
In terms of architecture, Hindu craftsmen also worked in constructing beautiful works. A

striking feature of the Agra fort of Shah Jahan is the carved decoration, representing living
things. This may indicate merely the predominance of Hindu craftsmen, and a lax overseer, but
more likely it can be ascribed to Akbar's own predilections.37
With this cultural amalgamation between the Indians and the Mughals, folk art also flourished.
Quite a few folk artists received the refinement and delicacy of the Mughal courts. They
borrowed freely from the Agra and Delhi courts and in some cases, also sent their skilled
craftsmen to adorn the Mughal courts. 38 Most important among them were the Rajasthani folk
art of four major schools and along with it the Pahari folk art, influencing much of the Mughal
paintings.
1.1.4 Christian and European influence
Christianity as a faith and also as a culture also fascinated the Mughals. 39* In 1580 the
Emperor Akbar invited to his court a party of Portuguese Jesuits from Goa, and allowed them
to set up a chapel in their quarters. There they put up two paintings of the Madonna and Child,
before which, to the astonishment of the Portuguese, Akbar prostrated himself. Frescoes of
Christ, Mary and the Christian saints were painted not only in the royal enclosure in Fatehpur
Sikri but also on Mughal tombs, harems and caravanserais across the realm. By the end of
Akbar's reign, a mural of the nativity even filled a wall of the Emperor's private chamber, and
miniatures and ivory plaques of Christian subjects had become a major part of the Mughal
24
atelier output.4016 Akbar’s son Jahangir also continued the tradition, competing with his father
to collect Christian images, and keeping large framed pictures of Jesus and the Madonna in his
sleeping chamber.41
Mughal painters learn about perspective and landscape painting from the European images
brought to the court. They also learned the art of portraiture-something quite new in Indian art.
“His Majesty himself sat for his likeness,” wrote Abul Fazl, “and also ordered to have
likenesses taken of all the grandees of the realm.” 42 They also introduced many new designs.
The English embroidery design also became famous during the time of Nur Jahan.43
16
37 Architecture XVIII. The Mughals and the Arts

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_18.html *Education* == *Literature* ==
*Architecture* == *Painting* == *Music*
38 S Gajrani, History, Religion and Culture of India, Volume 1 (Isha Books, Delhi, 2004), p 302
39 (* Christianity.as a faith influence Akbar’s discussions in Ibadat Khana and the formulation of Tauhid a Illahi
and as a culture in the different themes, genres of art and architecture)


42 Al-Farabi, al-Madina al-fadila (The Virtuous City), ed. and trans. R. Walzer, Al-Farabi on the Perfect State,

25
Fig 10 Mughal depiction c 1630 of Virgin Mary and Jesus
Fig 11 Jehangir and Jesus. Hashim, Jehangir, c. 1615-1620. Abul-Hasan.

26
1.1.5 The Imperial Harem and the Royal Ladies
The Mughal Imperial harem and the ladies residing therein can be taken as not only an aspect
but also as another source and inspiration of the Mughal concept of beauty and aesthetic. The
royal Imperial harem of the Mughals and its residents has always been under speculation from
time immemorial. Gulbadan Begum gives account on the life inside the harem 4417 but detailed
information can never be found. Ruby Lal in her book explains that Mughal harem is
comparatively a new area of Mughal study and so it is not much explored by the historians.45
Fig 12 Gulbadan Begum
The European travelers account on the Mughal zenana can be taken as a work of fantasy, where
the harem was nothing more than a place resided by young and beautiful women whose sole
aim was to pleasure the Emperor. But historians like Rekha Mishra and Ruby Lal challenge this
view with their writings on the domestic life of the royal women and their contributions to the
17
44 Annette S Beveridge, trans. The History of Humayun (Humayun-nama), by Gulbadan Begam (Princess Rose-
Body). (1901. Reprint. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1972. )
45 Ruby Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World, ( Cambridge University Press, Delhi, 2005) p 1
27
Mughal Empire- artistically or politically. 4618 When comparing with their Middle Eastern
sisters, the Mughal royal women had more liberty. They were well educated and had a far more
central part in court and diplomatic life than has previously been recognized.47
Here harem added to Mughal perception of beauty because it was the residential place of some
of the most beautiful women of the Mughal Empire who loved to beautify themselves with
various costumes, jewelries, cosmetics, perfumes and other toiletries. These were an integral
part of a royal lady’s regal display as a princely consort and as well as representing the royal
dynasty she was associated with.48
Fig 13 An ivory-based miniature portrait painting of Mumtaz Mahal
18
46 From Ruby Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World, ( Cambridge University Press, Delhi,
2005) and Rekha Mishra, Women in Mughal India (Munshiram Manoharlal Publications, Delhi, 1967)
47 William Dalrymple, The Most Magnificent Muslims http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2007/11/22/the-most-
magnificent-muslims/
28
The royal consort and all royal women who gave an heir to the throne, who could protect the
legitimacy of the dynastic line of the Empire, were seen as a jewel of the zenana, which was a
manifestation of beauty and reflected the sovereign’s power. In classical Sanskrit texts as well
as Persian poetry, physical beauty was seen as a manifestation of other attributes of idealized
royal identity such as noble (often divine and semi divine) birth and ‘dharmic’ conduct.
Beautiful wives and children reflected the aesthetic splendor and virility of the ruler. 4919
Not only had the physical beauty of these women but also their contribution and patronage to
Mughal art and architecture added to the beauty and splendor of the Empire. Women were not
only an inspiration of artistic love and beauty, as Mumtaz Mahal, the late wife of Shah Jahan
was for Taj Mahal, but royal women like Haji Begum, first wife of Humayun, Hamida Banu
Begum, mother of Akbar, Salima Begum, Akbar’s wife, Nur Jahan, Jahanara, Roshanara to
name a few, who were not only active in court politics but some of them gave active patronage
to Mughal art and architecture, contributing to new inventions and designs.50
These royal ladies had power and wealth through allowances, trade and personal favors to be
able to give patronage to various artists and craftsmen. According to Noha Sadek, a specialist
in Yemeni art and architecture, women rampantly indulged in patronage because they
considered it a charity; they also wished to leave their individual mark on society which is why
most of the work commissioned by such women carries a distinctive flavor of the times they
were built in and as well as the position the patron enjoyed.5120
These women patrons started stating themselves as a ‘self’, a dominant body from within the
harem through their self representation and the rest of the world as ‘other.’ Here their aim was
not to reject the participation of the Emperor or to incorporate him in the ‘other’ but to try to
19
48 Angma Dey Jhala , Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India ( Routledge, New York, 2016)
49 Angma Dey Jhala , Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India ( Routledge, New York, 2016)
20
50 Rekha Mishra, Women in Mughal India (Munshiram Manoharlal Publications, Delhi, 1967)
51 Haneen Rafi, Women’s role in Islamic art, architecture highlighted, Published in Dawn,
http://www.dawn.com/news/1137559/womens-role-in-islamic-art-architecture-highlighted
52 Feminist Perspectives on the Self Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-self/
29
make them closely associated with the Emperor and his sovereignty, as was done by Nur Jahan
and also by Jahanara, the daughter of Shah Jahan.52
Fig 14 Taj Mahal, built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, Agra
Fig
15
Humayun’s tomb, built under the patronage of Haji Begum, Emperor Humayun’s first wife in Delhi, 1569-
70
30
Fig 16 In this painting (circa 1740), two Mughal ladies celebrate with sparklers, author- unknown
31
***
Chapter 2
Nur Jahan’s Contribution to Mughal Beauty and Aesthetics
Adding to the Mughal principle and perception of beauty and aesthetic from inside the harem
was Nur Jahan, (1577–1645) wife of Jahangir. Jahangir married the widow Mihrunnisa in 1611
and gave her the title Nur Mahal, the ‘light of the palace’ and later Nur Jahan, the ‘light of the
world.’ She was the last wife of the Emperor and quickly overshadowed Jahangir's other wives
and assumed an unprecedented role in courtly and political life. Nur Jahan, her father,
Itimaduddaula, and her brother, Asaf Khan, formed a powerful triumvirate and made them her
‘junta’ to essentially control the state. By the end of Jahangir's reign, when the Emperor was
incapacitated by failing health, Nur Jahan was the virtual ruler. Jahangir himself acknowledged
her ability and legitimized her power.5321
21
University Press, 2008)
32
Fig 17 Jahangir and Nur Jahan
Nur Jahan was given immense power by Jahangir. He allowed her to mint coins in her name
and issue farmans- two of the important provisions for asserting sovereignty. He made her
Finance Minister after the death of the previous minister, her father. She became as powerful as
to be despised by some factions who saw her less favorable and started scheming against her.
Because Nur Jahan championed her son-in law, Shahriyar, as Jahangir's heir apparent, the
eldest prince, Shah Jahan, revolted. She nevertheless maintained control until Jahangir's death
in 1627, thereafter residing quietly in Lahore until her death in 1645.54
Nur Jahan was different from other Mughal royal ladies. Women gained power by providing
progeny to the Empire. But Nur Jahan did not have any children with Jahangir; she only had
one daughter from her previous marriage to Shah Afghan. Nur Jahan’s power came from her
personal merit. Though there were powerful women in Mughal Empire, none of them gathered
so much power and controlled the Empire like Nur Jahan. The actual definition of woman’s
power in the Mughal Empire was Nur Jahan. She changed the contemporary as well as modern
idea of the residents of the Mughal harem as ‘objects’ of beauty, whose aim was to only
beautify themselves and be passive to the approach to beauty and aesthetics of Mughal art and
architecture. She became the active patron to the Mughal concept of beauty and aesthetic by
contributing to art and architecture. Nur Jahan exhibited strains of feminist assertion. Her
feminist traits are very feminine yet imbued with many of the masculine character traits
admired by her society.5522 Nur Jahan is probably the lone example among the harem women
who shot tigers and lions and did not veiled herself.
22
55 Mandakranta Bose, Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India (Oxford University Press,
New York, 2000) p 246
33
Fig 18 Nur Jahan in hunting costume
Not only interested in politics, Nur Jahan is famed for her impact on culture too. Jahangir’s era
has been considered as much more Persianized regime due to Nur Jahan and her family’s
political domination at the Mughal Court. Her Persian culture and her own individuality added
vigorously to Mughal perception of beauty and aesthetic.
2.1 Moving Beyond the Harem

The most important thing for patronage was money. Upon her marriage to Jahangir, Nur Jahan
acquired not only considerable power but the substantial resources available to Mughal women
at the time. Along with getting her allowance like other women of the zenana from the Imperial
purse, she got gifts and also managed the estate of her late father, was involved in trade with
Europeans and domestic traders and collected duties. The disposal of resources went in part for
enhancing life in the women’s apartments; it also turned toward acts of patronage. Nur Jahan
was extremely liberal in her generosities when it came to donations as said by chroniclers
Muhammad Hudi and Muhammad Khan. Her patronage also extended to buildings, she used
her resources to build monuments that were not only useful and necessary but trend setting and
innovative as well.5623
23
56 D. Fairchild Ruggles ed. Women, Patronage, and Self-Representation in Islamic Societies ( State University
of New York Press, 2000)
34
With her artistic achievements, we are getting a clear perception about Nur Jahan’s personality,
unrefined by secondary sources. We are able to hear her voice and see her vision in the
architecture she designed and patronized and in the gardens she laid out. Many noblewomen of
Nur Jahan's era had both the time and money to invest in the arts, as well as the technical
advice and personal authority with which to plan and carry out their own projects. Of these
women, those of the Jahangiri generation were certainly among the most prolific, and of these,
it was Nur Jahan who made the contributions best known to history.5724
The fine arts and architecture of the Mughal tradition had already reached a well-cultivated
stage by the time of Jahangir and Nur Jahan. Jahangir was a renowned patron of art and the
splendor of his palace attracted talented artists and craftsmen from Persian, central Asia and
from the subcontinent itself. New innovation in art and architecture added to this splendor.
Jahangir had luxurious taste and this reflected in his connoisseurship too. New elements were
added to the Mughal concept of aesthetic beauty: the use of the flowering plant as a design
motif on buildings, vessels, and manuscript pages; the use of European styles of perspective,
shading, and character delineation in miniature painting; the surfacing of buildings in
translucent white marble; the development of jade carving as an art native to the court; and the
appearance of costumes in ever finer cloth and ever more elaborate design within the Imperial
wardrobe.58
It is true that these artistic innovations had been done under the patronage of Emperor Jahangir,
but the presence of Nur Jahan cannot be undermined. Ellison Findly writes that Nur Jahan had
a freshly Persian perspective and a genuine gift for aesthetic discernment together with a
foreigner's newly appreciative eye for indigenous Indian decoration combined to produce an
artistic force inventive and strong enough to influence much of the art of her husband's court.59
The influence of Nur Jahan is in the widespread Persianizing of ornament, in the incorporation
of more representational (Hinduized) figures, and in the general emphasis on opulence in
material and on the embellishment of surfaces so prominent during Jahangir's reign.
24
57 Ellison Findly Nur Jahan Empress of Mughal India (Oxford University Press New York, 1993) p 218
59 Ibid
35
Nur Jahan had populist streak in her patronage, as can be seen in the designs she created and
the materials she used, not only they had mass appeal but sometimes were inexpensive enough
for many to afford for larger consumption outside the palace. On her Nur Mahal Sarai, for
example, we find an abundance of the realistic figures so avoided by the abstract tastes of
stricter Muslims and so popular in the iconography of local Hindus: dueling elephants, pairs of
peacocks, and three-dimensional lotus flowers. Moreover, Khafi Khan attributed an
inexpensive dress for marriage ceremonies to the empress's hand, and it became known from
that time on as the ‘nurmahali’. Nur Jahan's populism, seen earlier in things like her many
marriage dowries to Hindu orphan girls and confirmed in these two examples, reached as far
then as her artistic developments, confirming once again the ubiquity of her touch and the
realism of her sensibilities.6025
The works and contributions of Nur Jahan to art can be found documented in contemporary
texts like the Tuzuk i Jahangir, early European memoirs as well as popular oral traditions.
Khafi khan was in work to recreate Nur Jahan’s talents and accomplishments. According to
legends Nur Jahan was creating art everywhere she turned. This tendency to ascribe cultural
and artistic innovations to Nur Jahan was a reflection of the general Indian preference for
tracing a tradition back to a single charismatic individual. We will not ever know for some
items whether Nur Jahan was actually their author or not and, while there may be forms and
techniques now lost to her canon, an overall appreciation of her work is still possible from the
uneven remains of the tradition.61
Indicative as much of her political power as of her appreciative eyes was the coins minted in
her name. Pelsaert has told us that, like Jahangir, Nur Jahan minted coins in both gold and
silver (a rupee) and that her coins were distinctive both in the inscription they bore and, in the
case of some, in the signs of the zodiac printed on the sides of each coin.62
25
62 W.H. Moreland and P. Geyl, trans. Jahangir's India, The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert. (Cambridge: W.
Heffer & Sons Ltd., 1925) p 29
36
Fig 19 Silver rupee from 1627/8; Nur Jahan's name on the right face
As mentioned earlier the minting of coins was, along with the use of the khutba and the issuing
of farman, the supreme symbol of sovereignty for a Mughal ruler. To have been granted the
right of two of these (the use of the khutba remained the only power kept from Nur Jahan) was
a mark in itself of almost total sovereign responsibility.63
2.1.1 Domestic Art
Nur Jahan added to the beauty of domestic art. Her contributions improved the harem life and
made it more aesthetically splendid. In her private sphere, Nur Jahan is known to have
innovated new ways to prepare and serve food, of course to impress the Emperor who was a
gourmet.
Nur Jahan contributed liberally to the development of new recipes of rare and distinguished
taste in the 1617 festival in Mandu. There is a tradition, moreover, that the finely carved jade
and gem-studded fruit knife now in the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad belonged to Nur
Jahan and was used by her, if not for the preparation of fruit, at least for its presentation.6426
26
37
Fig 20 Fruit knife of Nur Jahan
Central to the domestic arts was the appreciation of dress and fabric. Jahangir was, by all
accounts, a lover of fashion and his costumes, turbans, and jewelry tended on the whole to be
more luxurious and elaborate than those worn during his father's time. Nur Jahan's hand in the
design and execution of these outfits of her husband's, while not specifically mentioned in the
Tuzuk, may have been substantial as their relationship encouraged the creation of a wondrous
Imperial image.6527
From within the zenana, Nur wielded considerable influence. The Mughal women were not
behind in the use of cosmetics to beautifying themselves. Jewelry being an important aspect of
dressing was deeply patronized by the women of the Mughal harem. 66 According to Abul Fazl
there are sixteen constituents by which a woman is adorned.67
Fashion trends were swayed by her tastes and creations. She developed new patterns in fabric,
embroidery, and dress styles. It is believed that she designed the new styles of turban and
clothing for the Emperor. Fashions in women's clothing she adopted were still popular at the
end of the 16th century. Artistic and creative, she experimented with various perfumes, hair
ointment, jewelry, food, silks, and porcelain from different countries. Her family was creative
27
65 Alexander Rogers trans. and Henry Beveridge, ed. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, or Memoirs of Jahangir ( 2 vols.
1909-14. 2d ed. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968)
66 Sumita Dey, Fashion, Attire and Mughal women: A story behind the purdha
67 Abul Fazl Allami, The Aín i Akbari, trans, H. Blochmann, M.A. and Colonel H. S. Jarrett (the Asiatic society
of Bengal. Calcutta, the Baptist Mission Press, 1873 – 1907)
38
as well. Jahangir writes in his memories about a new kind of perfume prepared from rose patels
by Nur Jahan’s mother Asmat Banu Begam who called it as ‘itr-i-jahangir.’ Coming from a
literary family, Nur wrote poetry and encouraged poetry contests among the court women.6828
Jahangir’s painter Mansur was an expert at painting flowers, and his superb flower panting
might have provided inspiration for a few carpet makers. Also, along with the Jesuits, European
botanists began arriving in India at the time. Nur Jahan’s great interest in English needlework
might have inspired the carpet artists to develop new patterns.69
Fig 21 Tulip from Kashmir (c. 1610) by Mansur
2.1.2 Painting
As mentioned Jahangir was a remarkable connoisseur of painting and his taste was luxurious as
well as distinct. Under his enlightened patronage, miniature painting achieved unequaled
stylistic levels and his studios produced an impressive array of portraiture, animal and plant
studies, and historical tableaus. Nur Jahan's marriage to such a connoisseur must have given
rise to substantial mutual benefit.
28
68 Nur Jahan, Encyclopedia of World Biography. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435000095.html
69 Annemarie Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reakton Books,
London,2004)
39
She encouraged and inspired the work of painting and Jahangir also gave her and the women of
the zenana the liberty to experiment. There is evidence that some women under Jahangir
painted and some of them had instructor, the famous Iranian painter Aga Riza, who came to
work under Jahangir. Although scholars like K. S. Lal state convincingly that Nur Jahan
"herself painted with some amount of excellence," there are no extant paintings which can be
attributed unmistakably to her hand.7029
Nur Jahan did, however, have other kinds of influence upon the development of painting under
Jahangir. She was no doubt the appreciative beneficiary of many of the single images and
illustrated manuscripts made in the Imperial studios. A copy of Hafiz's ‘diwan’, for example,
written by Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirin Qalam during Akbar's reign and illustrated with
miniatures under Jahangir, bears the seal of Nur Jahan, indicating that it was presented to her
on some occasion by her husband. Moreover, Nur Jahan may well have been behind the
presentation of two copies of the Jahangirnama (having illustrations intended to accompany
written entries in the Emperor's memoirs) to her father and brother. Itimaduddaula and Asaf
Khan were each said to have received a copy of the album in 1619, a year at the height of the
junta’s power, and there can be no doubt that Nur Jahan had masterminded this appropriate
deposition of valuable Imperial treasures.7130
Fig 22 A text page from the Dīvān of Ḥāfiẓ, calligrapher ‘Abd al-Ṣamad, probably ca. 1582
29
30
40
Beyond her role as collector and curator of some of Jahangir's pictorial hoard, Nur Jahan may
well have helped select the specific subjects of paintings requisitioned from European
merchants. Jahangir’s taste from religious European paintings became more secular and many
paintings he received had a greater variety of women subjects. Nur Jahan's Persian origins and
her preference for representational imagery helped stimulate and encourage the move away
from traditional Muslim interest in pietistic religious art toward themes consonant with the
more figurative tendencies of local Hindu culture.72
For exaggerating his sovereignty and upholding his political agenda, Jahangir accepted the
secular images which the English brought- such as the English court and parliament, that
celebrated sovereignty. This also appealed to Nur Jahan who was impelled to maintain her
husband’s authority as well as to some extant her own.
Finally, the increase in interest in the variety of female images available, whether they are of
urban matrons, Roman goddesses, or feasting courtesans, must certainly have been at Nur
Jahan's instance. Jahangir had always loved fine form in women, but these new requisitions
were surely less to satisfy his own prurient interests than to meet the curiosity of his ever
worldly queen. The woman who would send a letter and gifts to the mother of a neighboring
ruler must also have wondered about women's lives in the home countries of her commercial
partners, and once again circumstance, here the mercantile resources of the English, obliged to
offer Nur Jahan exactly what she wanted.7331
Because of the influence of Nur Jahan, women became an important subject in Mughal
paintings. Under Akbar’s reign, women were more secluded within the walls of the zenana and
were traditionally being showed veiled. But during Jahangir and Nur Jahan’s time, due to much
Hinduization and the influence of local Rajput painting on Mughal painting, the latter’s artist
could hardly ignore the liberal women images and the Hindu sculpture.74
2.1.3 Patronage to Architecture and Garden

31
of New York Press, 2000) p 108
74 A. K. Das, Mughal Painting, p. 46.

41
Patronage to architecture is an important source of legitimacy and sovereignty and is one of the
reasons why the Mughals were such avid builders. Early in his reign Jahangir used inscriptions
on large monuments to link himself with his immediate Mughal predecessors as well as with
Timur, the ultimate source of Mughal legitimacy. By the time he was well established, he no
longer did this.75
There was a shift from Humayun inspired building filled with paradisiacal imagery to tombs
resembling contemporary palaces which are more suggestive of splendor, power and wealth
than of paradise, the eternal abode of the just ruler on the Day of Judgment. 76The
amalgamation of different designs from different religions and regions was furthered during
Jahangir’s reign. In Jahangir’s Agra palaces, the Jesuit father, Jerome Xavier indicates that
Christian subject matter embellished the interior of the palaces. But the presence of such
images was a matter of fashion, not a reflection of religious belief.77
Nur Jahan’s patronage of architecture is well established although rarely mentioned in

contemporary texts. It is better known from inscriptions and the writings of European travelers.
According to Francisco Pelsaert, a European residing in India during the height of Nur Jahan's
power, the queen constructed pleasure gardens, palaces and sarais throughout the land in order
to enhance her image and reputation. He further indicates that she built for financial gain. 7832
Important structures constructed under her patronage were the Nur Mahal Sarai, Jalandhar
Tomb of Itimaduddaula, Agra, Pattar Masjid, Srinagar, Tomb of Nur Jahan, Lahore.
The construction of sarais or the resting place for travelers on road was an important attribution
of the Mughals and Nur Jahan also contributed to it. Jahangir in Tuzuk mentions the
construction of sarais done by Jahan whose expenditure she herself contributed to. 79 The
architecture and design of the Nur Mahal Sarai is the fusion of Mughal and Hindu cultures.
Nur Jahan had decorated this most prominent facade with panels of figurative angels, nymphs,
32
76 Ibid, p107
77 Henry Beveridge, (trans). 1889, ‘Father Jerome Xavier”, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
79 Alexander Rogers trans. and Henry Beveridge, ed. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, or Memoirs of Jahangir ( 2 vols.
1909-14. 2d ed. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968)
42
peacocks, lions, elephants, men on horseback, birds, and a wonderful array of stylized lotuses
—all of which had appeal for the local Hindu populace. Nur Jahan's attempt to combine Hindu
figurative with Muslim geometries is, in fact, quite pleasing. This amalgamation can be seen in
other buildings constructed under the supervision of Nur Jahan.8033
Fig 23 Nur Mahal Sarai
Fig 24 Nur Mahal Sarai, decorated by small figurines

The tomb of Itimadudduala, built under Nur Jahan, can be taken as a finest example of the
artistic ability of the Queen and her understanding and knowledge of beauty and aesthetic. The
33
43
tombs, like all other constructions supervised by her were amalgamation of different designs
influenced by local as well as global synthesis. Along with Persian influence, European, Indian
influences can be traced in this work of art. White marble which was rarely used earlier was
used in this tomb. Another was the European technique of ‘piertra dura’ which was developed
in Florence, where the surface of the tomb is worked with polished inlays of semi precious
stones. Also mentioned earlier, embroidery especially Chikan Kari was used in the tomb.
Another construction was the Pattar Masjid Rock was used to symbolize legitimacy and the
Pattar Masjid of Kashmir was made of rock, which declared the power and legitimacy of the
queen.8134
Fig 25 Tomb of Itimadudduala
The favorite summer retreat for the Mughals was Kashmir where they laid out many beautiful
gardens. Nur Jahan was a garden lover and laid out as well as refurbished many gardens for the
34
44
sake of pleasure and beauty. Nur Jahan's entrance into the landscape arts as Jahangir's chief
agent in the field did not necessarily break new ground for women, for Mughal women had
been laying out gardens for years.82
It was Nur Jahan, however, who made possible the elevation of what had been merely a minor
personal pastime to a major Imperial pursuit. Drawing initially upon the natural conjunction
between the private focus of Persian gardens and the secluded life of the harem, Nur Jahan
broadened the concept of the garden, giving it an official sovereign function and then opening
it up, at least in part, for popular use. In this way, gardens proliferated throughout the Empire
under her patronage and were designed and executed with increasing refinement and elegance.
Moreover, the Imperial couple used their gardens not only for the private pleasures of parties,
family celebrations, art displays, and meditations, but increasingly for diplomatic and political
functions as well: Jahangir brought rebellious sons to task there, he met with groups of
religious there, and he held open court with foreigners there. This bursting forth of gardens and
the expanded repertoire of their use could only have happened; however, in conjunction with
another change Nur Jahan was encouraging at the time: the reorientation of travel by women
primarily for the sake of leisure.83
Women hardly travelled for leisure before Jahangir. They were confined within the harem.
However with Nur Jahan such confinement began to fall away. The status of the women was
changing. When comparing paintings during Akbar and Jahangir’s time, we see that there is a
transition on the appearance of women from veiled and secluded patrons to more liberally
dressed ladies enjoying the pleasure of the material luxury of the court. It was this code of
pleasure, presided over and inspirited by Nur Jahan that opened the way for greater travel by
women for the sake of leisure. As women now went out more often for their own amusement,
rest stations and gardens began to proliferate to the far reaches of the Mughal countryside in
order to accommodate the expanding needs of the harem.8435
The gardens patronized by Nur Jahan were Nur Afshan Garden (Ram Bagh), Agra, Vernag,
further southeast of Srinagar (Shahabad), Achabal, southeast of Srinagar, Shalimar Bagh, Dal
35
82 Ellison Findly Nur Jahan Empress of Mughal India (Oxford University Press New York, 1993)
83 Ibid, p 245
45
Lake, The Nur Afza Garden, Hari Parbat Fort, Dal Lake Darogha Bagh (Lalla Rookh's
Garden), Manasbal Lake, Moti Bagh, or Moti Mahal, Agra.
The gardens of Mughal India took their pattern from centuries-old Persian antecedents. The
standard form of the paradise garden used idealized treatments of irrigated water as the
symbols for the spiritual and physical source of life and exceptional species of living things to
mark out space along perfected lines.8536
The Mughals adopted this basic plan of the Persian garden, changing it as needed to fit the
Indian landscape. They also applied and changed the geometric designs of the gardens from
making it octagonal which reflected both material and spiritual life to dividing the garden into
eight parts so that they could represent the eight divisions of the Quran.86
Fig 26 Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, India
Nur Jahan made clear her sovereignty and power through her patronages and constructions that
she is present and wants to be well known. Her use of Islamic designs especially Persian as
well as Indian Hindu designs shows her leanings towards secularism. She was of course a
beautiful and well learned women but her beauty is exhibited through her patronage to art and
architecture. Here we can say that the use of beauty and aesthetic very wisely was used by Nur
Jahan to give her a voice and to showcase it through political cultural attributions.
36
86 Ibid
46
Fig 27 Pattar Masjid, Srinagar, India
***
Chapter 3
Decoding Mughal Perception of Beauty

47
The aim of this work is to decode Mughal sense of beauty by analyzing aesthetic notions and
perception but from the point of view of a woman - Nur Jahan - in this case. Royal ladies
before Nur Jahan also patronized and tried to represent themselves through their works but they
remained ‘absent’ from the contemporary world, within the confinement of the harem. Nur
Jahan on the other hand asserted her presence through her political and charitable works. But
most importantly she left a concrete mark of herself through her aesthetic patronages which
reflects her refined sense of the concept of Mughal beauty and aesthetic. She ‘un censored’
women by bringing them to the forefront, both politically and visually. She contributed not
only for the betterment of the harem but outside of it too. She was a populist, who thought
about her subjects like an able Empress. We can say that it was Nur who decoded and
deciphered Mughal beauty, the feminine notion of it from a feminine perception.
Here we can find out about the important attribute while studying the concept of beauty and
aesthetic. These are:
3.1 Mughal Women and Aesthetic Beauty
In defining the concept, we are studying in detail the Mughal art and architecture but from a
different perspective. Here beauty and aesthetic is playing a central role to understand the
Mughal art and architecture. The different sources and inspiration of Mughal concept of beauty
and aesthetic in art and architecture also adds to the notion of sovereignty of the Empire, as it
harmonized the various subjects belonging to different ethnicity, region and religion. By doing
this, the Emperor is declaring that he is different from the rest as only he has the power to
construct, patronize, unify and harmonize.
There are much works done on the patronage of the Emperor and the male members of the
Empire, their notion and perception of beauty and aesthetic and their sources of legitimacy. But
what is being ignored is the role of the Mughal women, their perception, their ideas, their
sources of power, the women are sort of censored in the works of contemporary writers and
was seen confined within the walls of harem only. By studying the role of Nur Jahan, we can
get a fair idea of how the women were during this period. But it should be kept in mind that
Nur Jahan was one of a kind. She was given immense power by her husband, the Emperor
Jahangir; so much that Ellison Findly calls her the Empress of India.
48
3.2 Interlinking of Sovereignty and Aesthetic Beauty
In the Mughal Empire, aesthetic beauty and sovereignty were interlinked with each other. Art
and architecture were directly involved in the Emperor’s political program of control,
organization and stability. There was synthesis of different culture which formed the Mughal
concept of beauty and aesthetic and this synthesis promoted the social harmony and added to
the beauty and grandeur of the Emperor and his Empire.
The Mughal painting and architecture asserted legitimacy of its patron, the Emperor (or
Empress). Architecture plays a crucial role in the success of Mughal dynasty of Delhi as it
provided the Empire a means through which to assert power over the people and transcend time
as rulers. The physical manifestation of power is monumentality, which is generated directly
from the strength and character of the architectural forms. Mughal architecture exhibits strength
not only in its physical form, but also in its range of uses from entirely public to extremely
private.8737
Like monuments, painting too declared the power of the Emperor. As mentioned, the painters
were influenced by different cultures and themes and their paintings were a symbiosis which
formed a vision of the Emperor about his Empire and subject. These paintings and monuments
were not simply evidence of history and context but were also products and producers of
discourse. This policy was followed by Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan who were active
patrons and admirers of beauty and aesthetic.88
In this interlink and interrelation of sovereignty and aesthetic beauty, Nur Jahan actively
participated. She became a joined sovereign to Jahangir. Nur Jahan also was influenced by this
visual representation and developed new elements to the concept of Mughal beauty and
aesthetic along with refurbishing the old ones. Her perception and contribution to the Mughal
notion of beauty and aesthetic had given her a voice, which was possessed previously by only
the male sovereigns of the Empire.8938
37
87 Arielle Hein, The Expression of Power in Mughal Architecture
http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/812/
88 Margaret Richardson, synthesis and symbiosis: Akbar’s aesthetic vision for India
38
of New York Press, 2000) p 91
90 Ibid, p 91
91 Ruby Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World, ( Cambridge University Press, Delhi, 2005) p 1
49
The monuments of Mughal Empire established an enduring presence of elegance and stability.
All these monuments were patronized by men but only few were by women and one of the
important being Nur Jahan. Her patronage extended broadly into a variety of arts- not only did
she fund and design in north India and Kashmir, but also had her hand in developing new
themes and interests- women in miniature painting, and her trade with the Europeans,
embroidered textile contributed to the floral design in Taj Mahal. She also patronized in
architectural sites, important being the tomb of Itimaduddaula and Nur Mahal Sarai. This sarai
not only reflect her style of donation in which the donor’s sense of herself as a ruler is
manifested in the syncretism of Hindu and Islamic surface design. More than any other Mughal
women of prominence, Nur Jahan affirmed and took advantage of the south Asian culture that
was her ruling milieu. We will argue then, that this Muslim queen worked out of a context
where patronage by women of many backgrounds had a long and enduring history giving
historic voice to Nur Jahan through her beauty- both which she physically possessed and which
she contributed to.90
3.3 The Centrality of Mughal Harem and its Residents
Ruby Lal studied the domestic sphere of the Mughal harem as a discursive and performed site
and tried to demonstrate the centrality of this space in the making of the Mughal imperium.
Mughal men and women were partners in the production of Imperial genealogies and new royal
rituals, in the establishment of new traditions, and even the practice of governance. Ruby Lal
has challenged the ‘fantastical’ and caricatured description of the Mughal harem especially by
the European writers as well as historians working on harem like R. Nath’s description of the
harem in his ‘Private Life of the Mughals.’91
In studying history all we get is the masculine perception of beauty, whether in its relation with
art, architecture or women. Hardly there is study about the idea of beauty from a women’s
perception and her knowledge of beauty reflecting in the aesthetics of the art and structure she
gives patronage to. Though indigenous women contributed to aesthetics of folk art, focusing on
Imperial patronage can only be studied in regard to women belonging to royalty and who had
enough money and power to give patronage to art and architecture that can reflect her idea of
aesthetics. Here we can say that beauty is not only perceived in these structures but also can be
50
seen in her power and her quest to sovereignty. Nur Jahan’s sense of beauty and aesthetic and
her patronage reflects this idea. This role made Nur Jahan and other women patrons more than
just their physical beauty, giving voice to them in history.
The concept of beauty and aesthetic also influence the social, political and cultural context as
well. The women patronage also influenced these contexts in the same way as it works for the
Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was the one handling the Empire and her patronage had much
influence on culture and politics and gave her a central role to play. Culturally and socially she
was incorporating her subjects into the Empire and conversing with them, politically she was
asserting her legitimacy as a ruler, all this she was doing with the concept of beauty and
aesthetic through her patronage to art and architecture.
3.4 Nur Jahan as the ‘Self’
The notion of woman as a ‘self’ is salient in feminist writings. It is always written that a ‘he’ is
always the ‘self’, the active dominant gender and ‘she’ is the ‘other’, because she belongs to
the ‘fairer’ gender who is a passive member of the society. Nur Jahan’s self representation
through her work changed this idea and she became the ‘self.’ Like the elite women in the
Islamic society have represented themselves in art, architecture, and in writings.9239
As said earlier, Mughal women, by self representing themselves through their works, tried to
assert themselves as a ‘self’ even if it was within the confinement of the zenana. Here their
contribution to the concept of beauty and aesthetic is also giving them a voice through which
they can engage in a visual dialogue with the ‘other’- those residing outside the harem. Nur
Jahan was an excellent conversationalist, her patronage to art and architecture led her to
converse visually to her subjects too. Her becoming of ‘self’ is more uniformed than other
royal ladies as she was able to turn herself into a dominant active individual possessing and
asserting immense power for a woman of her period.9340
39
of New York Press, 2000)
40
93 See Jie Chai, Self and gender: Women, philosophy, and poetry in pre-Imperial and early Imperial China,
Google Books
51
Fig 28 Mughal women holding a Veena India. 18 century. Color and gold on paper. Nur Jahan made
women depiction in painting more popular
***
Conclusion
The hypothesis of the dissertation that Queen Nur Jahan played an important part in
contributing to ‘Mughal beauty’ through her various patronages to art and architecture as well
as her inventions is deemed to be truthful. I came to this conclusion with the help of analyzing
the Mughals aesthetic principles and values, the sources and inspiration of their art and
architecture, the role of the royal women, Nur’s personal contribution to the Mughal ‘beauty’
52
and her ‘self’ assertion through this contribution and patronages as mentioned in the three
chapters of the thesis.
The objective of the dissertation is to index Nur Jahan’s aesthetic patronage to the Mughal
Empire. The Mughals were inspired and influenced by many sources that helped in their
creation of their aesthetic principles which they applied in their constructions to beautify the
Empire. This beautification also gave them power to assert their sovereignty through a visual
paradigm. The Mughal women also did not lag behind in this and even from within their
‘purdah’ they gave patronages to painters and artisans. These royal ladies were more than their
physical beauty. It is true that their beauty did reflect on the power of the sovereign, to have
such women companions. But the women’s beauty also reflected through her works. Nur Jahan
became a spokesperson of the women, having power and wealth to give patronage and have her
own voice in history. Nur Jahan had immense political power by ruling the Empire after the
degrading health of Jahangir and asserted herself sovereign enough to mint coin and issue
farmans, by the Emperors permission of course. In the realm of art and architecture, her
contributions added more to her power. She engaged in a discourse with her subjects through
her visual contributions like the other Mughal Emperors. Finally the women of Mughal dynasty
through self representation became the ‘self’, declaring their presence in the society. Nur Jahan
did this too. She added a new dynamism to the Mughal women historiography with her
presence and also led the world know that the royal ladies even though still behind the walls of
the zenana, had a voice through their patronage to beauty and aesthetic. But it should not be
forgotten that Jahangir informally had declared Nur sovereign, the one who was in control of
the Mughal Empire. So it can be taken that her perception of the concept of beauty and
aesthetic was more uniform and asserting than any other women of the Empire. Nevertheless,
the title of this thesis, “Beauty and the Mughals-Nur Jahan” reflects on the beauty and aesthetic
contribution of Nur Jahan during the elevated reign of the Mughal Empire.
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~***~
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~***~

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1

Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan

Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan

Dissertation submitted to the Department of History, Presidency University,

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

86/1 COLLEGE STREET

Head of the Department

Presidency University, Kolkata

We therefore recommend that the university may accept the dissertation.

Supervisor Head of the Department

(Sajjad Alam Rizvi) (Mridu Rai)

NAME- ZOYA MEHMOOD

CLASS- HISTORY UG 3 SEM 6

COURSE- Sessional 4 HIST0682

Supervisor- Prof. Sajjad Alam Rizvi

Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan

Chapters 1 The Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetics 8-30

1.1 Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetic- Sources and inspiration

1.1.1 Islamic influence

1.1.2 Role of Persians in Mughal Beauty and Aesthetic

1.1.3 Indian/Hindu Influence

1.1.4 Christian and European influence

1.1.5 The Imperial Harem and the Royal Ladies

Chapter 2 Nur Jahan’s Contribution to Mughal Beauty and Aesthetics 31-46

2.1 Moving Beyond the Harem

2.1.1 Domestic Art

Chapter 3 Decoding Mughal Perception of Beauty 47-51

3.1 Mughal Women and Aesthetic Beauty

3.2 Interlinking of Sovereignty and Aesthetic Beauty

3.3 The Centrality of Mughal Harem and its Residents

3.4 Nur Jahan as the ‘Self’

Image source 56-57

Beauty and the Mughals- Nur Jahan

The Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetics

9 William Dalrymple , Art treasures of the Mughal Empire

1.1 Mughal Concept of Beauty and Aesthetic- Sources and inspiration

1.1.1 Islamic influence

15 Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art

prohibition of representational art198, but the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad as

Fig 5 Babur, 16th C, Author- unknown

22 Mughal Court Artists, 1546-1627 http://dissertationreviews.org/archives/7177

1.1.2 Role of Persians in Mughal Beauty and Aesthetic

24 Deborah L. Black, Aesthetics in Islamic philosophy (Routledge, 1998)

25 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/343S-7.pdf

1.1.3 Indian/Hindu Influence

30 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society , p 282

36 Role of Persians In Mughal Culture Arts and Society , p 261

In terms of architecture, Hindu craftsmen also worked in constructing beautiful works. A

1.1.4 Christian and European influence

37 Architecture XVIII. The Mughals and the Arts

40 William Dalrymple , Art treasures of the Mughal Empire

41 William Dalrymple , Art treasures of the Mughal Empire

43 William Dalrymple , Art treasures of the Mughal Empire

Fig 10 Mughal depiction c 1630 of Virgin Mary and Jesus

Fig 11 Jehangir and Jesus. Hashim, Jehangir, c. 1615-1620. Abul-Hasan.

1.1.5 The Imperial Harem and the Royal Ladies

Fig 12 Gulbadan Begum

Fig 13 An ivory-based miniature portrait painting of Mumtaz Mahal

52 Feminist Perspectives on the Self Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Nur Jahan’s Contribution to Mughal Beauty and Aesthetics

Fig 17 Jahangir and Nur Jahan

Fig 18 Nur Jahan in hunting costume