Grade 12 Term 1 Physical Education

STUDENT COMPANION
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
GRADE-XII
Delhi Board of School Education |1

Authors
Mr. Rakesh Mohan Kothari, Assistant Proffesor, SCERT, Delhi
Ms. Sunita Sharda, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Dr. Gurpreet Makkar, Physical Education Teacher, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Dr. Sachin Kumar, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Dr. Dhirender Kaim, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Dr. Umesh Kumar Ahlawat, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Ms. Nisha, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Mr. Mayank Sharma, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Mr. Bhopinder Singh, Physical Education Teacher, DoE, NCT of Delhi
Mr. Sanjay Singh, Lecturer Physical Education, DoE, NCT of Delhi

UNIT-I: SPORTS TRAINING
S. No. Content Page No.
1 Introduction of Sports Training 6
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Sports Training 6
1.2 Aim and Objectives of Sports Training 8
1.3 Principles of Sports Training 11
2 Path of Adaptation in Training 14
2.1 Concept of Training Load, Recovery and Adaptation 15
2.2 Overload and its symptoms 17
2.3 Conditions affecting Adaptation 18
3 Bio-Motor Abilities and their developing methods in Sports 19
3.1 Speed its types and developing methods 19
3.2 Strength its types and developing methods 26
3.3 Flexibility its types and developing methods 30
3.4 Endurance its types and developing methods 32
3.5 Coordinative Abilities its types and developing methods 34
4 Designing of Sports Training Plan 36
4.1 General introduction of different phases of Periodization 36
4.2 Types of Cycles in different phases (Micro, Meso and Macro) 38
4.3 Important steps for developing a sports specific training plan 39
5 Activity Zone 40
6 Let’s Research 49
7 Glossary 56
8 Abbreviations 58
9 References 58

UNIT-II: KINESIOLOGY & BIOMECHANICS
S. No. Content Page No.

1 Introduction 59
1.1 Uses of Biomechanics 59
1.2 Identify axis and plane in different movements 61
2 Conceptual understanding of movement in sports 63
2.1 Application of Newton’s law of Motion in physical activities 63
and sports
2.2 Application of friction in different sports conditions 66
3 Exploring centre of Gravity in sports 68
3.1 Analyse conditions for maintaining equilibrium in sports 69
4 Structure of Motor Actions 72
4.1 Differentiate cyclic action, acyclic action, and movement 72
combination
4.2 Use of lever in physical activities and sports 75
5 Activity Zone 77
6 Let’s Research 83
7 Glossary 88
8 References 90

Rationale of the Unit (1): Sports Training
Sports training and the knowledge of its principles along with the standards of load,
adaptation and the recovery processes will definitely help you in systematic instructional process
which aims at improving an individuals’ ability to play his/her assigned roles effectively and
meaningfully. The unit will help you learn about the physical fitness components, their types and
development methods for attainment of high levels of performance at all levels, whether in sports
or in daily life. With the knowledge of different training cycles students will be able to prepare
appropriate training programs for different individuals.
Learning Objectives:
● To make students aware about the concept and principles of sports training.
● To make students learn and understand the training load, overload, adaptation, and
recovery concepts.
● To make students understand different types & methods of strength, speed, endurance,
flexibility, and coordinative abilities.
● To make students understand sports training and the different cycles in sports training.
Rationale of the Unit (2): Kinesiology and Biomechanics
This chapter deals with the concepts related to the human body and its movements. These
components apply to everyone as they are universal in nature. The concepts of movement are
broadly divided into two parts i.e., Biomechanics and kinesiology. Both these are the basis of
every principle that applies on the human body and helps a person to move effectively. The unit
will provide knowledge of axis and planes, Newton’s laws of motion, levers, friction, and
equilibrium in sports, which will provide a broad base for impact of forces on the human body,
and help us to get the information regarding safest movement patterns.
Learning Objectives: Students will
● learn the meaning & definition of kinesiology and biomechanics and its importance in
sports.
● learn about different types of body movements.
● understand the concept of axis, plane and its application in body movements.
● understanding Newton’s laws of motion and their application in sports.
● understand the lever, friction and equilibrium and its application in sports.
● learn cyclic action, acyclic action, and movement combination.

1. INTRODUCTION OF SPORTS TRAINING
Training has been an integral part of every athlete’s life. Athletes have their
own training requirements according to their chosen sport as well as according to
their body shape, size, gender, and age. Training is not a new concept:- its history can
be traced to the ancient Olympics, where athletes used to train for the Olympics and
other tournaments, many descriptions can be seen in Ramayana and Mahabharata
about teachings in Gurukul where archery and wrestling were taught by the gurus.
Although it can be safely said that the training methods have been improved
drastically in recent times with the help of scientific advancements in the field of
sports
Training method is important for different athletes playing different sports

e.g., a sprinter requires explosive strength for an initial boost in the 100m race but
does not require large amount of muscular endurance which is required by a marathon
runner. Now you may be thinking that “Training is required only by a sports
athlete, and it has no role in a normal individual’s life?” To answer this question,
we must understand this that training is a broader concept, which affects every
individual irrespective of being an athlete or not. Suppose you want to lose weight, or
have a desire to maintain your body weight, you go to a gym and tell the instructor
about your goals. He will give a training plan according to your goal. You might or
might not achieve your goal, but the important thing is that you follow a path and
work on your body.
1.1.MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF SPORTS TRAINING
Sports training is a method and a systematic process by which we improve the

performance of an athlete. Sports training is done by keeping some definite goals in
mind. It is based on scientific facts and discoveries which give an edge to an athlete
to achieve his/her maximum potential. According to Harre “Sports training, based
on scientific knowledge, is a pedagogical process of sports perfection which
through systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and
performance readiness aims at leading the sportsman to high and the highest

performance.” So, if we understand Harre‟s perspective, sports training is not only
related to physical performance, but it also involves the psychological aspects and
aims towards improving both the physical and psychological performance of an
athlete. Hardayal Singh defines it as “Sports training is a pedagogical process,
based on scientific principles, aiming at preparing sportsmen for higher
performance in sports competitions.” Similarly, Thiess and Schnabel defined sports
training as “a scientifically based and pedagogically organised process through
which planned and systematic effect on performance ability and performance
readiness aims at sports perfection and performance improvement as well as at
the contest in sports competition.” The same has been echoed by every sports
scientist i.e. it is a process, to enhance psycho-physical abilities and aims towards the
best performance of an athlete.
Sports training has changed gradually; it not only focuses on the physical
exercises, but also psychological aspects such as anxiety, aggression, motivation etc.
come into play. Now every athlete has a team of coaches, psychologists, conditioning
trainers, world class equipment, and dieticians who cater to every need of an athlete.
This team includes experts from every field which works in coordination to get
maximum output from the athlete. Every athlete has an end goal which he/she wants
to achieve e.g., some may have a goal of winning an Olympic medal or winning a
world championship. But to achieve the end goal the athlete must have short-term
goals. This concept of periodization is an important part of sports training about
which we will learn later in the chapter.

So, we can say that “Sports training is a systematic process which is used
to increase the psycho-physical performance of an athlete to achieve the highest
performance in sports.”
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SPORTS
AIM:
The desired aim of sports training is to enhance the optimum/ maximum
performance and skill level of an athlete. This aim is achieved with different
objectives.These objectives are used by the training staff in everyday life towards the
gradual growth of an athlete. These objectives can be general in nature, but they are
highly effective. We should also understand that these principles can be used in our
daily life and in turn are helpful in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
OBJECTIVES:
● General Physical Development: General physical development is the basic level

of fitness to perform daily physical activity, whether it is doing the household work
or working in an office, we all need a general level of fitness. Same way to play any
sport an athlete should have a general level of physical fitness, which is the base of
any sport. An athlete should have basic level of endurance, speed, flexibility,
strength, and coordination to perform different physical movements. The main
purpose of general physical development is to obtain higher level of general fitness
components.
● Sports Specific Physical Development: In life some goals are general in nature
e.g., losing weight but some goals are specific in nature e.g., losing 6 kg weight in 2
months. This objective deals with the preparation of the athlete towards the specific
field of interest. The athlete must be trained according to the sports he is playing,

and the training plan must focus on the specific muscle groups. e.g. basketball
players should focus on the shoulder and leg muscles and work on coordination
rather than increasing aerobic endurance, which is more important for a 10000 m
runner.
● Technical Development: Technical development is understanding the technical

details of something. Suppose you join a new school; it will take you sometime to
understand the workings of that school. According to technical development, an
athlete is trained in the technicalities of the game such as, rules and regulations of
the game, specific movements of the sports, playing in different conditions. The
main aim is to prepare the athlete in every aspect of the game which is controllable
by an athlete. E.g., practicing an outswinger by a medium passer or a googly by a
spinner in cricket.
● Tactical Development: After technique, the next step is tactical training which
primarily focuses on preparing us for the situation, which we do not know about or
we can only predict e.g., a surprise test taken by a teacher. If we see tactical
development in sports then this part of training prepares an athlete for unknown
circumstances in the game. Tactical development is used in training to make an
athlete aware about the strategies an opponent may use in the game situation.
Tactical training can improve the chance of an athlete to perform better by
analyzing the strategies of an opponent.

● Psychological Development: Being psychologically strong is important to succeed
or survive in every situation. In our daily lives we face many stressful situations
e.g., getting late for something or exam time situations. Similarly psychological
development has a significant role in the performance of an athlete. It gives
discipline through which the athlete gets willpower to perform at the highest level
which results in higher level of confidence.
● Team Cohesion: Often in our life we work in teams whether it is school or

playground we are always with our classmates or teammates. Team cohesion helps
us to understand our group or people working with us in a better way. This has a
key role in team sports also where many athletes come together and play as a unit
e.g., IPL. We should understand that every individual has a distinct background and
mind-set, so team cohesion helps them to come together and play without any
differences. Team cohesion gives the sense of belongingness to every athlete, which
results in better team performance.
● Overall Health: Not only in sports but in general life also we try to stay fit and
improve our overall health, whether we do it by yoga, exercise, weight training or

any other method. In sports with proper planning of training one can improve the
overall health of the athletes. Such as timely medical examinations, adequate level
of load, and recovery, if any athlete got injured or sick then proper time is given for
recovery before starting the training again. All these factors can improve the overall
health of the team and can be helpful in enhancing the performance.
● Improved Efficiency: When we do something daily it tends to improve our

efficiency and we can obtain proficiency in that e.g., if you plan to study daily for 2
hours, you may find it difficult in the beginning but by the time you will get
efficient, and it becomes easy for you. In sports training, when we practice the same
skills every day, we become efficient in those skills. E.g., when you start running, it
is difficult to run for a long time or long distance but as you do it for few days, you
start running for longer duration or longer distance.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING
Sports training is a scientific method which works by certain principles that

are based on the understanding of the physical and psychological factors of an
athlete. Every principle of sports training is distinct from each other, but it is seen
as a whole concept that is required for the highest performance of an athlete. If
these principles are used in the correct manner then it can be beneficial for the
athlete as well as training staff, if we understand these principles, we can easily

find them in our daily lives. Sports training principles are:
● Principle of Active Participation: To learn anything in life you need to give your
100% then only you will learn e.g., you want to learn to play guitar, if you do not
participate actively then it will be difficult for you to learn it. In sports training also
an athlete should actively participate in the training. The active participation in the
training session is the responsibility of both the trainer and athlete. Trainer and
athlete should discuss the goals and objectives which they want to achieve and then
work towards it. Trainer should encourage its athletes by regularly discussing the
performance of the athlete.
● Principle of Individual Difference: Every individual is different with respect to

size, shape, age, fitness level, health status, and gender. If you look around in your
classroom you may find these physical differences amongst your classmates and
teachers. So, while planning a training plan also, the trainer should keep all these
factors in mind. Every aspect of the training schedule should be according to the
psychological and physiological requirements of an athlete to achieve the maximum
results. It should be according to the capabilities of the individual. e.g. There should
be different training schedules for school level players and as for an international
level player.

● Principle of Reversibility: We all heard that nothing is permanent in life. This
principle focuses on working every day. Suppose you learn about probability in
class, but you do not practice that again then there is a high chance that you will
forget about it sometime. This principle focuses on the regularity of the training and
if we do not exercise regularly then we will not have positive results. It is to be
understood that if there is a long gap between training then the adaptation will not
happen which results in no improvement in the performance.
● Principle of Load Progression: There are two factors which play a vital role in
performance enhancement i.e., workload and quality of work. To enhance the
performance, the load should be increased gradually because the human body takes
time to adapt. Suppose you want to learn swimming; you go to the trainer. The
trainer will teach you the basics of swimming gradually and not teach everything at
once. Similarly, training load should increase day by day and load should be higher
than the normal load yet not too high so that the muscles can adapt slowly without
getting extra pressure and the performance can also be improved vice versa.
● Principle of Variety: Everyday doing the same thing can be monotonous and can
lead to boredom. You may not like to eat the same thing every day. So, in sports
training the coach should find other activities which can indulge athletes and at the
same time, which helps them to enhance their performance and skill. E.g., changing
the time of training session, environment or changing the nature (different sport).
Use different training methods for development of the same component.
● Principle of Cyclicity: Learning is a process, and it should be done by giving

importance to each step of the process. Suppose you want to do a chemistry
experiment then you should follow the set of steps to reach the result. Similarly, As
studied earlier, sports training is a scientific process, so trainers should divide the
session in different cycles and each cycle has different objectives. There are three
major training cycles i.e., macro cycle which is 6-12 months long, then there is
meso cycle which is 3-6 weeks long and at the last there is micro cycle which is
3-10 days long. Trainers should divide the training sessions according to the
different cycles while keeping in mind the cycle goal as well as the end goal.

● Principle of Overload: It is believed that one can only bend to a point otherwise it
will break, the same way there is a limit to work given or done by an individual. To
enhance the performance, one should increase the load for the purpose of enhancing
the adaptation process. Load can be psychological or physical, when training on the
same load then there is no chance of improvement which results in no change in
performance. There should be balance between the increased load and the
individual capabilities, otherwise the athlete will not be able to adapt and can
sustain injury also.
● Principle of Rest and Recovery: Every scientist discovered that sleep is important
for an individual and an adult should get at least 7-9 hours of sleep everyday
otherwise it will affect the functioning of that individual. Likewise, every athlete
should get time to recover after every training phase. This is an important part of
sports training as excessive use of the psycho-physical domain can lead to injury.
Athletes should get time to rejuvenate and focus on the recovery process, so they
can come back and train harder and give better performance.
2 PATH OF ADAPTATION IN TRAINING

The path of adaptation in sports training refers to the process by which athletes and
individuals progress through different stages of training to improve their performance and adapt
to the physical demands of their chosen sport. The primary goal of sports training is to enhance
an athlete's skills, strength, endurance, and overall performance while minimizing the risk of
injury. The path of adaptation typically follows a structured approach. Throughout the path of
adaptation, proper periodization and individualization of training play a significant role.
Periodization involves planning training phases strategically to allow for progressive adaptation
and peak performance during important events. Individualization considers an athlete's unique
strengths, weaknesses, and response to training stimuli, tailoring the program to suit their
specific needs. It's essential for athletes to work with qualified coaches who can design and
oversee an appropriate training program that takes into account their goals, skill level, and
physical condition. Additionally, monitoring and managing the workload, nutrition, rest, and
recovery are crucial elements in ensuring a successful path of adaptation in sports training.

2.1 CONCEPT OF TRAINING LOAD, RECOVERY AND ADAPTATION
The most important principle of training is the principle of load, recovery, and adaptation.
Every training session brings physiological, biochemical, and psychological changes in an
athlete. This happens because of the amount of load put on the athlete in terms of motor
stimulus, and to attain high performance the athlete should have an equal recovery period
compared to the load administered. The training load has a relationship with intensity of the
stimulus, volume of the stimulus, density of the stimulus and frequency of the stimulus.
Hardayal Singh defined load as “Physiological and psychological demands placed on

the individual through motor stimulus (movement) resulting in improvement and
maintenance of performance capacity.” So, the main purpose of administering higher load on
an athlete is to improve or maintain his athletic performance. The basic idea behind increasing
the load is to affect the homeostasis (internal body balance) of an athlete by increasing the motor
stimuli for a period and then the athlete's body goes through biochemical changes to adjust to the
load.
The load can be divided into two parts:
● External Load: The external load refers to volume of load, intensity of load, frequency of
load etc. that are used in training sessions to increase the performance of an athlete.
● Internal Load: The internal load is the psychological and physiological effects that happen
after an increase in the load such as fatigue, sweating, lack of concentration or lack of
coordination. These symptoms are the effect of increase in the outer load.

RECOVERY
Recovery and load have a relationship which is inevitable for achieving high performance
for any athlete. The purpose of load is to disturb the homeostasis of an athlete, whereas the
purpose of recovery is to bring back to the state of homeostasis in an athlete. There must be a
balance between load and recovery otherwise it will affect the performance of the athlete.
Suppose your teacher gives you homework on Monday and asks you to complete it by the next
day. This is fine for one time but what if it happens every day and the amount of homework is
increased every day; there will be a point where you will not be able to finish your homework.
Similarly if the amount of load is greater than the recovery or the amount of load is less than the
recovery then the performance of an athlete will decline or will not improve. Therefore, the
amount of load given to an athlete should be equal to the amount of recovery. Otherwise, the
performance of the athlete will not improve.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD AND RECOVERY
Condition (I): Proper Balance between Load and Recovery
Condition (II): Load is Less, and Recovery is More
Result: Decline in Performance

Condition (III): Load is More, and Recovery is Less
Result: Decline in Performance

Recovery is important for an athlete as it helps to restore all the substances which are
depleted in the training session. As a result, an athlete gives better performance after the
recovery.
ADAPTATION
To attain a high level of performance an athlete must go through a strict,

methodologically well-planned training for years. Same way if you want to become a lawyer you
have to go through law school and practice law as an intern under lawyers before becoming a
good lawyer. Adaptation is the process by which an athlete is transformed structurally and
physiologically before the physical demands are put on the athlete’s body. This demand can be
dependent on many variables like volume, intensity, or frequency. These demands put stress on
the body of an athlete, and they are useful only when they can force the body to adapt.
Otherwise, if the stress is too low then there will be no adaptation or if the stress is too high then
there are chances that the body will not tolerate the stress and chances of injury increases.
The adaptation process depends on several factors such as the capabilities of an athlete.
The quantity of the work should be according to the capabilities of the athlete, then comes the
recovery period which must be in accordance with the quantity of work given to an athlete and
lastly the load and recovery cycle should be administered for a certain period.
2.2 OVERLOAD AND ITS SYMPTOMS
Overload is a condition where an athlete is exposed to the load over a period and is
higher than the athlete’s capacity. The training is not only affecting the physiology but also the
psychology of an athlete. Higher load affects the nervous system of an athlete which results in
lack of adaptation which in turns results in decreased performance of an athlete. It is believed by
many scientists that if the metabolic and energy system get disturbed for a period then the
efficiency of the body cannot be attained, in result the homeostasis of an athlete is disturbed for a
longer period that can lead to injuries.
To achieve the highest performance from an athlete the coaches or trainers should give
ample time to recover otherwise the fatigue caused due to less recovery gets accumulated and
can result in lack of performance or in many cases leads to injuries.
Overloading is of two types:

1. Dominance of excitation process: This state tends to occur when there is no
preparation, and the training load is increased unexpectedly.
2. Dominance of relaxation: This state occurs when the training overload is

administered continuously for a longer period.
SYMPTOMS OF OVERLOAD
There are a lot of symptoms of overload which can affect the performance of an athlete. Some
of the symptoms which can be discussed are as follows.
● Decline in Performance
● Lack of Concentration
● Loss of Coordination
● Decline in the Quality of Movement
● Excess Fatigue
● Over Sweating
● Change in Skin Colour
● Loss of Motivation
● Lack of Energy
● Increase in Negative Thoughts, Tension, Stress, Anger, Confusion etc.
● Delays in Recovery from Training Session
● Reduced Readiness for Action
2.3 CONDITIONS AFFECTING ADAPTATION
The adaptation process can only happen if we follow certain conditions of training load.
These conditions can help an athlete to adapt in a proper manner. Following are the conditions of
adaptation.
● The adaptation can only be maximum if it is given according to the individual capacity of
the athlete. Training load administered on an athlete should be matching with the athlete's
individual capabilities.
● The coaches and trainer should plan the training sessions in such a manner that there is a
balance between training load and training intensity. Otherwise, the adaptation will not
happen.
● The training load must be higher than the previous load administered, as it gives fatigue
to the athlete which helps in adapting towards the higher load. If the trainer or coach
administers medium or low load then the adaptation will also be accordingly.
● The adaptation process has one important part that is recovery. Trainer should always
maintain a balance between load and recovery phases to achieve maximum adaptation.
● Adaptation is not a permanent phenomenon i.e., if you achieve a certain level of
adaptation then it will not be there permanently. So, to have adaptation for prolonged
periods, trainers or coaches should avoid long breaks between training.
● Beginners tend to adapt more quickly than the athletes who have been playing for some
time. New skill acquisition is also easier for the beginners than a seasoned athlete. So, to
avoid this the training sessions should vary in exercises and the sequence of exercises to
avoid any kind of muscle memory.
3 BIO-MOTOR ABILITIES AND THEIR DEVELOPING METHODS IN SPORTS
Bio-motor abilities are defined as the ability to execute a variety of activities for example
Speed, Endurance, Strength, Coordination, and Flexibility (Strudwick, 2002, 239). The
movement of the body is affected by these abilities therefore these are also known as “Bio-motor
Skills”. They can be genetically determined and can be enhanced through training.
3.1 SPEED ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS
There are many variations to the same task, e.g. we can perform it slowly, normally, or
swiftly. “Speed is the ability of an individual to perform a task in minimum time”. Speed in

sports is described as the ability to perform any sort of movement (such as a throw, a sprint, or a
jump) in as short an amount of time as possible.
Some Examples of Speed in daily life
Speed has so many forms. It is not just how fast someone can run or cycle, swim etc., but
is dependent on their acceleration (how quickly he/she can accelerate from a stationary position),
maximal speed of movement, and speed maintenance (minimizing deceleration).

● Reaction Time: It is one of the forms of speed and depends mainly on the nervous system.
It is the time interval between a signal and the reaction of the body on it. We can understand
the reaction time process with the help of an example shown in the following image:
As you can see in the given image when a person feels thirsty, his eyes see a glass of
water, a message is sent to the brain with the help of the sensory nerve. The Central nervous
system conveys the information about picking the glass of water to the hand for drinking.
Following are some examples of reaction time in daily life as well as in sports:
In Daily Life
▪ Shift towards your left side after listening to the horn of a vehicle.
▪ Typing
In Sports
▪ Start in short distance races
▪ Punching and defending in boxing

● Movement Speed: Ability of doing a single movement in minimum time. Movement speed
is of high relevance in acyclic sports. In cyclic sports it is important in some selected phases
e.g., finish of 100 mts, turns in swimming etc. Following are some examples for movement
speed in daily life as well as in sports:
In Daily Life
▪ Break eggs for making an omelette.
▪ Typing
In Sports
▪ Hurdle jump
▪ Pole turning in Kho-Kho
● Acceleration Speed: Ability of increasing speed or change in velocity. It takes time to reach
the maximum level of speed in any activity and acceleration speed helps for reaching from
initial to higher speed. e.g., accelerate speed in 100mts, approach run in long jump etc.
Following are some examples for acceleration speed in daily life as well as in sports:

In Daily Life
▪ Run and chase
▪ During cycling
In Sports
▪ Run for having the ball in football
▪ Running between the wickets in cricket
● Sprinting Speed: It is the ability of maintaining accelerated speed for a short period of time.
Acceleration speed is a prerequisite for sprinting speed. e.g., maintained accelerated speed
till finish of 100mts. Following are some examples for sprinting speed in daily life as well as
in sports:
In Daily Life
▪ Fan (maintaining accelerated speed)
▪ Maintaining accelerated speed in cycling for some time.
In Sports
▪ 50 mts freestyle event in swimming
▪ Run in approach run till take off for jump
● Speed Endurance: It is the ability of maintaining sprinting speed at or near your maximal
speed. e.g., 400mts event of athletics, 200 mts freestyle event in swimming etc. Following
are some examples for sprinting speed in daily life as well as in sports:

In Daily Life
▪ Going upstairs for the third floor speedily.
▪ Maintaining accelerated speed in cycling
In Sports
▪ 400 mts freestyle event in swimming
▪ Football match
DEVELOPING METHODS OF SPEED
● Acceleration Run: It is usually used to develop speed indirectly by improving explosive

strength, technique, flexibility, and movement frequency. With the help of this method an
individual can achieve high speed from a stationary position. For example, a sprinter
should do a 25-30m sprint 6-12 times. The maximum speed should be achieved within
5-6 sec. sufficient intervals should be provided between the repetitions.

● Pace Run: It is another method which is very good for developing the speed of an athlete. In
this method one athlete is trying to match the pace of another athlete by chasing him. The
actual distance and number of repetitions for pace depend upon the activity or nature of the
sport. In these races pace must be set with another athlete or partner athlete. It involves two
athletes with the same speed abilities. It is also an effective means for improving speed
endurance. For example: In repetition of 200m, the pacesetter stands 10 – 15 m ahead of
the other athlete. The pacesetter movement should be properly given otherwise it will
slow down the repetition of the good athlete and will have a negative impact on speed
and motor coordination. Therefore, the pace setter speed should be equally good for
training of the other athletes.
● Over-speed Training: In this method an individual has to run with more than normal speed.
These workouts aim to train the neuro-muscular system to work at a greater rate than is
normally possible. For Example: Running down a slope or using elastic ropes to pull
you along at higher than your natural speed.

3.2 STRENGTH ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS
Strength is the ability of muscles of an individual to overcome resistance. We can also

define it as a force applied by a muscle to perform a task is known as Strength.
Some Examples of Strength in daily life

■ Your mother carrying a vegetable bag from market to home
■ You carry the gas cylinder from the street to inside your home.
■ Your father shifting the bed or sofa.
Strength has so many classifications based on the requirement of strength. Sometimes

one maximal effort of muscle is required, sometimes this maximum force is required in
minimum time, and sometimes muscle force is required for longer duration. So, we have 3 types
of strength mentioned below:
TYPES OF STRENGTH
● Maximum Strength: Maximum strength is the maximum force a muscle can exert in a
single maximal voluntary contraction. Where we have to perform an action in a single
attempt with maximum strength that means we need maximum strength to perform that
action. Following are some examples for maximum strength in daily life as well as in sports:

In Daily Life
▪ Pushing furniture at home.
▪ Lifting something to put on your head.
In Sports
▪ Throwing events of athletics
▪ Weightlifting
● Explosive Strength: Explosive strength can be defined as the ability to overcome resistance
with high speed. Where we must perform an action with maximum strength as well as in
minimum time that means we need explosive strength to perform that action. Following are
some examples for maximum strength in daily life as well as in sports:
In Daily Life
▪ Pushing furniture with speed at home
▪ Lifting something with speed to put on your head
In Sports
▪ Throwing events of athletics
▪ Start in swimming
● Strength Endurance: The specific form of strength displayed in activities which require a
relatively long duration of muscle tension with minimal decrease in efficiency. It is the
ability to perform against resistance under the condition of fatigue. Where we have to
perform an action with efficient strength as well as for longer duration under the fatigue that
means we need strength endurance to perform that action. Following are some examples for
maximum strength in daily life as well as in sports:
In Daily Life
▪ Walking with a baby in a nap
▪ Lifting something while roaming in the market
In Sports
▪ Rowing
▪ Tug of war
DEVELOPING METHODS OF STRENGTH
● Isometric Exercises: The word “iso means “same” and “metric means “length”. So, under
these exercises muscle length is the same, and work done cannot be observed. These
exercises are also useful for maintaining strength in case of injury. For example, isometric
movement can be seen in Yoga (during maintaining body posture in a particular
asana), holds like plank etc.

● Isotonic Exercises: The word “Iso '' Means „same‟, and „tonic‟ means „tension‟. The
lengthening and shortening of muscles can be seen in these kinds of exercises and the
tension throughout the movement will be the same. Eccentric and concentric contractions are
seen during this exercise. For Example: When we throw a ball, jump, run, weight training,
this type of contraction occurs. Isotonic movement can be seen in maximum sports like
football, badminton, table tennis etc.
● Isokinetic Exercises: The word “Iso” means “same” and “kinetic” means “motion or
speed”. These exercises are done by a specially designed isokinetic machine such as
treadmill. The motion or speed of movement in these exercises will be the same throughout
the movement. For Example: treadmill running, isokinetic cybex machines etc.

3.3 FLEXIBILITY ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS
Flexibility can be defined as the ability to perform movement of a joint with greater range
of motion or large amplitude.
OR
Flexibility is influenced by the mobility of the soft tissues that surround a joint, including muscles,
ligaments, tendons, joint capsules, fascia and skin.
TYPES OF FLEXIBILITY
● Passive Flexibility: It is the ability to perform movement with greater range with external
help e.g., doing stretching movements with the help of a partner or equipment.
● Active Flexibility: It is the ability to perform movement with greater range without
external help e.g., performance of a stretching or mobility movement by the individual
himself, Active flexibility is divided into two types:
▪ Static Flexibility: Ability to perform movement of a joint with greater range when
the body is in stationary position. In other words, how far we can reach, bend or turn
and then hold that position. E.g., Toe touch and hold.
▪ Dynamic Flexibility: Ability to perform movement of a joint with greater range

when the body is in motion e.g., running, jumping, kicking, hitting etc.
Static Flexibility Dynamic Flexibility
DEVELOPING METHODS OF FLEXIBILITY
● Ballistic Method: Movement is done with a swing in a rhythmic manner to its maximum
range, e.g. touching your feet.
● Slow Stretching Method: This method is better than the ballistic method because it
results in better flexibility and minimizes chances of injury. In this procedure, the muscle
is stretched slowly to its maximum limit and then slowly brought back to its original
position, ex quad stretch, hamstring stretch, butterfly, figure-four, calf stretch, and lateral
flexion stretches.
● Slow Stretching and Holding Method: This method is superior to the previous two
training means. In this method, the muscle is stretched slowly to its maximum limit and is
held there for about 6 to 10 seconds. The muscle is then slowly brought back to its
normal position.
● Post- Isometric Stretch (PNF Method): This method of flexibility development is

based on the principle of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF). In this
procedure, the muscle is first contracted maximally for 6-8 seconds using an isometric
method. After this the muscle is gradually stretched to its maximum limit. The final
position is held for about 8 to 10 seconds. For best effects, the exercise is repeated 4 to 8
times, e.g. an antagonist muscle opposes the action of another; an agonist muscle
contracts while another relaxes. An example of agonist and antagonist muscles would be
the quadriceps contracts while hamstrings relax.

3.4 ENDURANCE ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS
Endurance is the ability to make physical effort over a long period of time.
OR
Endurance is the ability of individuals to remain active for a long period of time, as well
as their ability to resist fatigue.
TYPES OF ENDURANCE
Endurance has a relationship with fatigue. If a person does not get fatigue easily or has an
ability to work under fatigue then that person has a high level of endurance. Endurance can be
divided into two main broader categories i.e., nature of the activity and duration of the activity.
Firstly, we will learn about the nature of activity.
● Basic Endurance: It is the ability of the organism to resist fatigue in the case where the
load applied is of medium intensity. This endurance is generally needed where large
muscle groups are involved, and the activity is done for more than 30 minutes. For
example, slow jogging, cycling, brisk walking etc.
● General Endurance: General endurance is the ability to perform sporting activities for a
prolonged period and where large muscle groups are involved. The general endurance
allows athletes to perform better regardless of the game they participate in, but it is more
helpful for the athletes which are involved in sports where a high level of endurance is
required such as marathon, 10000m race etc.
● Specific Endurance: This type of endurance is more inclined towards the sports an
athlete is involved in. Specific endurance helps an athlete to learn specific skills of the
sports by repeating the motor movements of the sport, e.g. 1500 m.
Now, as we know that the different nature of activities requires different types of

endurance, let's move and learn about the requirement of endurance according to the duration of
the activities.
● Endurance of short duration: The duration of the activity is between 45 seconds to 2

minutes; the intensity of these activities is extremely high. An example of short duration
activities is the 400m race.
● Endurance of medium duration: The duration of these activities is between 2-6

minutes. The intensity level of medium duration activities is lower than short duration
activities. Few examples of short duration activities are 800m and 1500m races.
● Endurance of long duration: The duration of these activities is more than 8 minutes.
The intensity level of medium duration activities is lower than short and medium duration
activities and the examples of long duration activities are 5000m, 10000m, and marathon.
● Endurance of speed: When the intensity of the activity is maximum and the athlete
requires maximum strength and speed then it is known as speed endurance. For example,
100m, 200m races.
METHODS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF ENDURANCE

● Methods based on continuous principle: These methods are also termed as duration
load methods, which include those methods of training in which uninterrupted medium to
sub-maximum intensity loads are maintained for a relatively longer period. It contains
following methods:
▪ Slow Constant Method: In this method the intensity of running is such that
because of undertaking the training load the heart rate increases from normal to
between 140-160 beats per minute. To produce best results, the volume of load in
terms of duration should not be less than 30 minutes.
▪ Fast Constant Method: In this method, the intensity of running is such that
because of administration of training load, the heart rate increases from normal
value to between 160- 180 beats per minute. The volume of load in terms of
duration should not be less than 20 minutes.
▪ Varied Pace Method: This method also involves application of uninterrupted
loads but with change of pace or spread. In this method the sportsperson starts

with the fast constant method first and continues about 15 minutes and then
switches over to slow constant method for the remaining 45 minutes. During this
period of undertaking the load, the heart rate is maintained between 140 to 180
beats per minute.
▪ Methods based on Interval Principle: It involves repeated efforts at a relatively
faster pace separated by measured intervals of incomplete recovery. The intensity of each
set of running should be such that the heart rate increases from normal to between 170 to
180 beats per minute. The sets of loads are repeated when the heart rate comes down
from the above value to about 120 beats per minute.
● Circuit Training: Circuit training is a form of body conditioning that involves

endurance training, resistance training, high-intensity aerobics, and exercises performed
in a circuit, circuit training is the most time-efficient way to enhance cardiovascular
fitness and muscle endurance
● Weight Training: Strength training or resistance training involves the performance of

physical exercises that are designed to improve strength and endurance. It is often
associated with the lifting of weights. It can also incorporate a variety of training
techniques such as calisthenics, isometrics, and plyometric
3.5 COORDINATIVE ABILITIES ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS
Coordinative ability is a complex bio motor ability, and it is interrelated with speed,
endurance, strength, and flexibility. Coordinative abilities are the combination of movements of
different body parts. It shows the psychological basis of coordination of the processes of the
nervous system. The coordinative abilities show the synchronization of different systems and
organs of the human body. Coordinative ability enables an athlete to perform dynamic
movements with efficiency. There are different types of coordinative abilities which are as
follows:

● Combinatory Ability: According to the combinatory ability, an athlete combines
different movements of different body parts systematically to perform a successful sports
movement. Combinatory ability is a combination of complex movements of different
body parts.
● Orientation Ability: This ability shows the capabilities of an athlete to change the
direction or movement according to its surroundings. It is the ability by which an athlete
gets the knowledge of its surroundings and understands its orientation is space and time.
For example, in basketball players must change their movements according to their
opponents or playgrounds.
● Differentiation Ability: This focuses on the proficiency in technical skills of any sport
or game. When an athlete performs a skill effectively and reduces the wastage of
movement to the minimum then it is considered as a differentiation ability. For example,
in gymnastics an athlete has to be very precise in the movement as one single wrong step
can lead to losing of the points.
● Adaptation Ability: When an athlete adapts to the situations or changes the movement
according to the changes in the situation which may be anticipated or not is known as
adaptation ability. The athlete must do the movement effectively and for that purpose
training exercises should be changed more often.
● Rhythm Ability: It is to perform any movement by understanding its rhythm. In some
cases, or sports there are no rhythm than in that cases athlete should use the rhythm that is
stored, ex bending & stretching, bouncing to a beat
● Reaction Ability: The quick response to any stimulus is known as reaction ability. The
athlete playing in different games and sports especially team sports use different signals,
calls etc. in the game, these signals can be verbal, visual or gestures to communicate
between the athletes, throwing a ball, recoil of a gun.
METHODS TO IMPROVE COORDINATIVE ABILITIES
● Practicing physical exercise.

● Correct and conscious movement
● Additional means to improve motor sense
● Variation in exercises
● Degree of difficulty

4 DESIGNING OF SPORTS TRAINING PLAN
Designing a sports training plan requires careful consideration of various factors, including
the sport itself, the athlete's current fitness level, their goals, the time available for training, and any
specific areas that need improvement. Below, outline a general framework for designing a sports
training plan:
● Assessment and Goal Setting

● Periodization
● Training Components
● Training Schedule
● Nutrition and Hydration
● Monitoring and Feedback
● Injury Prevention
● Mental Training
● Reevaluation and Adaptation
Always remember that each athlete is unique, and the training plan should be tailored to their
specific needs and circumstances. It's also a good idea to consult with qualified coaches, sports
scientists, or professionals with experience in the particular sport to ensure a comprehensive and
effective training program.
4.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT PHASES OF PERIODIZATION
Periodization is the systematic process by which we try to achieve the peak of an athlete at the
main competition. Periodization divides the whole training plan into segments which can be easily
managed. This is an old phenomenon dating to the Greek Olympic era. The periodization is divided
into three main phases i.e., preparatory phase, competition phase and transition phase. Each phase has
its importance as it caters to the distinct needs of an athlete and prepares the athlete for the best
performance at the time of competition.
Furthermore, each phase of the annual plan or periodization is divided into smaller
sub-phases and different cycles i.e., micro cycle, meso cycle, and macro cycles. Each cycle has
its own objectives, and the training plan is made keeping in mind those objectives only. The
periodization can be differentiated based on competition phases such as if there are two
compilation phases in a year then it will be called as bicycle. Whereas if there are three
competition phases in a year then it will be called a tricycle. It totally depends on the coach and
athlete, what plan they want to follow to achieve their goals. Distinct phases of periodization
have some features and objectives let us read about them:
● Preparatory phase: Preparatory phase is the first phase of the annual training cycle with
the purpose to improve the general fitness of the athlete and move towards more sport’s
specific fitness of the athlete. The training volume in the preparatory phase is very high
and the intensity of the training is very low and moves forward with very little to no
technical training and tactical training but as we proceed towards the end of the
preparatory phase the training volume goes down to moderate to low and training
intensity goes from low to moderate and high and the technical and tactical training also
increases significantly. The main aim of the preparatory phase is to prepare the athlete for
the competition phase and increase the load and volume in such a way that by the time
competition comes, the athlete reaches his/her peak.
● Competition Phase: Competition phase is the most important phase of the annual
training cycle as the athlete must deliver all the hard work done in this period.
Competition cycle generally has a sub phase known as pre competition phase where the
athlete acclimatizes him/herself with his/her competition surroundings. The focus in the
competition period is on the tactical training with high intensity of training and low
volume. The main agenda of training in this phase is to keep in good shape and stay away
from injuries and study the opponents.
● Transition Phase: Transition phase is the only phase which comes only once in an
annual training plan as its main purpose is to give time to athletes to recover from the
fatigue of the entire year. In this period athletes do recreational activities and try to
maintain the general level of fitness. The training volume and the intensity both are
extremely low with no technical or tactical training. Athletes often indulge in other sports
so they can stay active as well as at the same time break the monotony of playing a sport
for the entire year. This phase can last from 15 days to 1 month.
4.2 TYPES OF CYCLES IN DIFFERENT PHASES (MICRO, MESO AND MACRO)
The training schedule is divided into a number of training cycles. The cycles can vary
according to the time, objectives and the requirement of the training staff or athlete. The
combination of these training plans results in an annual training plan of an athlete. Different
training cycles have different strategic values which aim towards the highest performance of an
athlete. Suppose you want to score good marks in the board exam, you divide your whole year
into smaller parts and different parts focus on different objectives. In simple words you can call it
your timetable. There are basically three type of training cycles which are as follows:
● Micro cycle: This is the shortest training cycle which lasts for 1 week, it is also known as
a weekly training program. Micro cycle is the most important training cycle as it’s
structure, and content ensures the quality of training. Every micro cycle may have
different objectives, intensity, volume etc. training load on every weekly session can also
vary according to the necessity and requirement of an athlete. The micro cycle aims
towards the technical advancement of an athlete. After every micro cycle, the coach and
athlete can reflect on the performance and achievement of the goals such as whether the
objective was achieved or analyse negative and positive aspects regarding the athlete's
behaviour etc. the micro cycle must be a functional plan and it must be as simple as
possible.
● Meso cycle: The meso cycle is bigger than the micro cycle and it can be 3-6 weeks long
or it consists of 3-6 micro cycles. However, the criteria to select macro cycles may differ
for different sports. The main aim of the macro cycle is not only preparing an athlete for
the technical part of the game but also for the tactical aspects of the game. These sessions
differ in terms of different phases of periodization. There are 4-6 micro cycles in the
preparatory phase; whereas there are 2-4 micro cycles in the competition phase. The
objectives of each meso cycle are linked with the next meso cycle. For example, if a
coach wants to improve the strength of an athlete for a certain skill in basketball in the
current meso cycle then it is certainly preparing an athlete for some skills in the next
meso-cycle.
● Macro cycle: The macro cycle is the biggest cycle of the three which can be 6-12 months
long. The macro cycle is the combination of both meso and micro cycle. The macro cycle
has broader objectives such as winning competitions and focuses on every aspect of
training. The training load in macro cycle is increased continuously and the training
schedule in macro training is flexible and changes according to the needs of coaches and
athletes keeping in mind the phase of training and schedule of competition.
4.3 IMPORTANT STEPS FOR DEVELOPING A SPORTS SPECIFIC TRAINING

PLAN
As we have learned in this chapter, a training plan is prepared according to the specific
characteristics of an individual to achieve the maximum results. The development of a training
plan is a process and there are certain points which need to be kept in mind while preparing a
sports specific training plan.
● There should be an outline of weak and strong points of the athlete in different training
and tests and the training plan should include any information relevant to the athlete.
● The aims and objectives of the training plan should be clear right from the beginning.
● The coaches and trainers should hypothesize the performance results of the athlete.
● It is to be decided before the start of the training schedule about the competitions where
the athlete is going to participate, and the periodization process should be planned
accordingly.
● There should be general training guidelines for the athlete and in addition there should be
specific training objectives.
● The record of the performance of an athlete must be maintained to see the growth or
analyse the factors which are affecting the growth of an athlete.
● Technical and tactical training should be outlined beforehand in the training plan and
their improvement also to be recorded.
● There should be a record of psychological preparation and psychological development of
an athlete according to the sport.

Activity Zone

Activity-2
Define sports training in your own words and find factors which is affected by sports
training.

Activity-4
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q1. Which one of the following is not a principle of sports training?
(a) Principle of individual difference (b) Principle of reversibility
(c) Principle of projectile (d) Principle of load progression
Q2. If we do not practice regularly, then the principle of comes in action.
(a) load progression (b) reversibility
(c) cyclicity (d) variety
Q3. Fatigue may lead to injury. So athletes should get time to rejuvenate. This is
known as principal of _____________.
(a) overload (b) individual difference
(c) cyclicity (d) rest and recovery

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q1. Briefly explain about the principle of individual difference with examples.
Q2. How are the principles of variety and cyclicity different from each other?
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q1. The principles of sports training help an athlete to achieve his top performance.
Explain in detail.

Activity-11
Q1. The maximum force a muscle can exert in a single maximal voluntary contraction is
known as____________________.
(a) Explosive strength (b) Maximum strength
(c) Strength endurance (d) Muscle tone
Q2. The ability to overcome resistance with high speed is known as______________.
(a) Maximum strength (b) Explosive strength
(c) Strength endurance (d) All of these
Q1. Explain in brief about isometric method of training.
Q2. Explain in brief about isotonic method of training.
Q3. Explain in brief about isokinetic method of training.
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q1. What is strength? Name the training methods that improve strength. Explain any
one method.

Activity-12

Q1. Ability to react quickly and effectively to a signal is called_______________.
(a) Coupling ability (b) Reaction ability
(c) Orientation ability (d) None of these
Q2. Differential ability is a part of_____________________.

(a) Endurance ability (b) Strength increasing ability
(c) Coordinative ability (d) Jumping ability
Q3. Which of the following is complex reaction ability?

(a) Running a 1500-meter race (b) Playing a golf match
(c) Dodging a player in basketball match (d) Throwing a javelin
Activity-13
Q1. Which one of the following is a phase of periodization?
(a) Competition face` (b) Preparatory phase
(b) Both A and B (d) Transitional phase
Q2. In _______________ phase of periodization, the athlete does recreational activities and
tries to maintain the general level of fitness.
(a) Preparatory phase` (b) Transitional phase
(c) Competition phase (d) All of these

Q1. Briefly explain about periodization?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Write a short note on the preparatory phase?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Activity-15
LONG ANSWER QUESTION
Q1. Explain in detail about the important steps to be taken before a training programme.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Effective performance in the game of Badminton depends upon fitness of the different fitness
components.
A study was conducted on thirty-five male badminton players (Shuttlers) to establish health
related fitness profile. The mean values and standards of the components are shown in the table 1
and 2 respectively given below:
Table- 1
S. No. Variables Unit Mean
1. Cardio-Respiratory Fitness Minutes : Seconds 7:41
2. Muscular Endurance Numbers 42
3. Muscular Strength Kilograms 39.5
4. Flexibility Centimetre 12.5
5. Body Fat Percentage Percentage 12.75
Table- 2
Standards for Flexibility in cm
Super Excellent Good Average Fair
>27 17-27 6-16 0-5 - 8 to -1
Standards for Body Fat in Percentage
Athletic Good Acceptable Overweight Obese
5-10 11-14 15-20 21-24 >24
Standards for Muscular Endurance in Numbers
Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor
>43 37-42 33-36 29-32 < 28
Standards for Muscular Strength in Kilograms
Strong Normal Weak
>56.6 36.8-56.6 < 36.8
Standards for Cardio-Respiratory Fitness in Minutes : Seconds
Excellent Good Normal Poor Very Poor
11:08 11:42 12:38 13:38 14:37
Interpretation of the Given Tables
● As you have seen the data and standards shown above in the respective tables. The mean value
of Cardio-Respiratory Fitness is 7 minutes & 41 seconds which indicates that the
Cardio-Respiratory Fitness of male badminton players (Shuttlers) comes under Excellent
standard.
of Muscular Endurance is 42 in numbers which indicates that theMuscular Endurance of
male badminton players (Shuttlers) comes under Above Average standard.
of Muscular Strength is 39.5 kilograms which indicates that the Muscular Strength of male
badminton players (Shuttlers) comes under Normal standard.
of Flexibility is 12.5 centimetres which indicates that the Flexibility of male badminton
players (Shuttlers) comes under Good standard.
of Body Fat Percentage is 12.75 percent which indicates that the Body Fat Percentage of male
badminton players (Shuttlers) comes under Good standard.
(a) Identify the component in which players need to improve. Give a valid reason.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Suggest any two methods to develop the least developed component from the above data.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Identify the maximum developed component and its importance in the badminton game.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Arrange the fitness components in ascending order from least developed to maximum
developed.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. A study was conducted on 2000 boys with age groups ranging from 6 to 9 years (500 students
in each age group) to develop health-related fitness norms of school children of Delhi. The mean
values of the components are shown in the table 3:
Table: 3
S. Variables Unit Mean Mean Mean Mean
No. 6 Years 7 Years 8 Years 9 Years
1. Cardio-Respiratory Fitness Seconds 366.55 346.79 332.89 344.23
2. Muscular Endurance Numbers 5 9 12 13
3. Muscular Strength Numbers 12 14 17 17
2
4. Body Composition (BMI) Kg/m 15.13 15.06 16.19 16.39
Graphical Representation of the Data
Interpretation of the Tables: 3

● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of Cardio- Respiratory
Fitness is 366.55 seconds for 6 years, 346.79 seconds for 7 years, 332.89 seconds for 8 years,
and 344.23 seconds for 9 years boys, which indicates that the Cardio-Respiratory Fitness of 8
years boys is maximum followed by 9, 7 and 6 years boys.
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of Muscular Endurance is 5
for 6 years, 9 for 7 years, 12 for 8 years, and 13 for 9 years boys, which indicates that the
Muscular Endurance of 9 years boys is maximum followed by 8, 7 and 6 years boys.
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of Muscular Strength is 5 for
6 years, 9 for 7 years, 12 for 8 years, and 13 for 9 years boys, which indicates that the
Muscular Strength of 8 & 9 years boys is maximum followed by 7 and 6 years boys.
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of Body Composition is 5 for
6 years, 9 for 7 years, 12 for 8 years, and 13 for 9 years boys, which indicates that the Body
Composition of 9 years boys is maximum followed by 8, 6 and 7 years boys.
(A) Identify the type of data for researcher with reason.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(B) Identify in which age category Cardio-Respiratory Fitness has been least. Suggest any two
methods to develop Cardio-Respiratory Fitness.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(C) Identify the component in which performance of boys is gradually increasing.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(D) Analyse and evaluate the given table on the basis of muscular endurance. Give explanation for
the change in performance level in different age categories.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. A study was conducted on 2000 boys with age groups ranging from 6 to 9 years (500 students in
each age group) to develop health-related fitness norms of school children of Delhi. The frequency
distribution for Sit Ups of 6, 7, 8 and 9 years School Children of conducted study as per the
FITNESSGRAM Standards 2013-14 are shown in the table (4):
Table (4): Frequency Distribution for Sit Ups of 6, 7, 8 and 9 years School Children
Categories 6 years 7 years 8 years 9 years
Healthy Fitness Zone

≥2 ≥4 ≥6 ≥9
Standards for Sit
Ups
210 182 229 284
Below Healthy Fitness Zone
(42%) (36.4%) (45.8%) (56.8%)
290 318 271 216

Healthy Fitness Zone
(58%) (63.6%) (54.2%) (43.2%)
8 Years 9 Years
Graphical Representation of the Data

Fitness Zone: Below Healthy (Red) & Healthy (White)

Interpretation of the Table (4):
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables represents the frequency distribution for Sit Ups
of 6, 7, 8 and 9 years School Children. The data indicates the Healthy Fitness Zone Standards
for Sit Ups, numbers of students come under the below healthy fitness zone and numbers of
students come under healthy fitness zone.
● The frequency distribution for Sit Ups of 6 years School Children indicates that the value for
Healthy Fitness Zone/Standards for Sit Ups is > 2, numbers of students come under below
healthy fitness zone are 210 out of 500 (42 %) and numbers of students come under healthy
fitness zone are 290 out of 500 (58 %).
healthy fitness zone are 182 out of 500 (36.4 %) and numbers of students come under healthy
fitness zone are 318 out of 500 (63.6 %).
(a) Identify the type of data for you. Give a reason.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Identify in which age category frequency distribution for Sit Ups has been least in the
Below Healthy Fitness Zone.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Identify in which age category frequency distribution for Sit Ups has been maximum
in the Below Healthy Fitness Zone.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Identify in which age category frequency distribution for Sit Ups has been least in the
Healthy Fitness Zone.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) Identify in which age category frequency distribution for Sit Ups has been maximum in
the Healthy Fitness Zone.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Sources of Research:
1. Sethi Deepali, “A Study to Establish Health Related Fitness Profile of Shuttlers”,
Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Delhi, 2018.
2. Kumar Sachin, “Development of Health Related Fitness Norms of School Children of
Delhi”, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Delhi, 2014.
3. Kumar Sachin, “Development of Health Related Fitness Norms of School Children of
Delhi”, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Delhi, 2014.

● Adaptation: Something produced to adjust to different conditions or uses, or to meet
different situations.
● Coordination: It is the combination of movements of different body parts. It is the
ability to select the right muscle at the right time with proper intensity to achieve proper
action. Coordinated movement is characterized by appropriate speed, distance, direction,
timing and muscular tension.
● Endurance: It is the ability of an individual to remain active for a long period of time, as
well as its ability to resist, withstand and recover from fatigue.
● Explosive Strength: It is the ability to overcome resistance with high speed.
● External Load: The external load refers to volume of load, intensity of load, frequency
of load etc. that are used in training sessions to increase the performance of an athlete.
● Homeostasis: It is the ability to maintain internal stability in an organism in response to
environmental changes.
● Internal Load: The internal load is the psychological and physiological effects that
happen after an increase in the load such as fatigue, sweating, lack of concentration or
lack of coordination.
● Isokinetic Strength: The word „Iso‟ means „same‟ and „kinetic‟ means „motion‟.
These exercises are done by a specially designed machine. The motion of movement in
these exercises will be the same throughout the movement.
● Isometric Strength: The word „Iso‟ means „same‟ and „metric‟ means „length‟. So,
under these exercises muscle length is the same, and work done cannot be observed.
● Isotonic Strength: The word „Iso‟ means „same‟ and „tonic‟ means „tension‟. The
lengthening and shortening of muscles can be seen in these kinds of exercises and the
tension throughout the movement will be the same.
● Load: Physiological and psychological demands placed on the individual through motor
stimulus (movement) resulting in improvement and maintenance of performance
capacity.
● Macro cycle: The macro cycle is the biggest cycle of the three which can be 6-12 months
long. It is also known as the yearly cycle.
● Maximum Strength: Maximum strength is the maximum force a muscle can exert in a
single maximal voluntary contraction.
● Meso cycle: The meso cycle is bigger than the micro cycle and it can be 3-6 weeks long
or it consists of 3-6 micro cycles. It is also known as the monthly cycle.
● Micro cycle: This is the shortest training cycle which lasts for 3 to 10 days or 1 week, it
is also known as a weekly training program.

● Overload: It is a condition where an athlete is exposed to the load over a period and is
higher than the athlete's capacity.
● Periodization: It is the systematic process by which coach and athlete try to achieve peak
performance at the main competition.
● Psychological Development: The development of human beings‟ cognitive, emotional,
intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of a normal life span,
from infancy through old age.
● Reaction Time: It is the time interval between a signal and the reaction of the body on it.
● Recovery: It helps to restore all the substances which are depleted in the training session.
As a result, an athlete gives better performance after the recovery.
● Speed Endurance: When the intensity of the activity is maximum, and the athlete
requires maximum strength and speed, then it is known as speed endurance.
● Speed : It is the ability to perform any movement in the minimum possible time.
● Sports Training: Sports training is a pedagogical process, based on scientific principles,
aiming at preparing sportsmen for higher performances in sports competitions
● Strength: It is the ability of muscles of an individual to overcome resistance. In other
words, it as a force applied by a muscle to perform a task is known as Strength.
● Tactical Development: After technique, the next step is tactical developments which
primarily focus on preparing athletes for the situation, which they do not know about or
they can only predict. Tactical development is used in training to make an athlete aware
about the strategies an opponent may use in the game situation. Tactical training can
improve the chance of an athlete to perform better by analyzing the strategies of an
opponent.
● Team Cohesion: Team cohesion gives the sense of belongingness to every athlete, which
results in better team performance. Team cohesion helps us to understand our group, team
or people working with us in a better way
● Technical Development: Technical development understands the systematic and
scientific details of something. According to technical development, an athlete is trained
in the technicalities of the game such as, rules and regulations of the game, specific
movements of the sports, playing in different conditions.
● Training: It is the process of transmitting and receiving information related to
problem-solving.

ABBREVIATIONS
● CNS : Central Nervous System
● IPL : Indian Premier League
● PNF : Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
● Basic of Sports Training by Olesandr Krasilshchikov

● Science of Sports Training by Hardyal Singh
● Wiki page: Importance of Sports Training
● You tube video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JbFB0QqjfZs
● https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/10B8Z4H-qdhmvjn2cekoShpAVNLsd7s

UNIT-II: KINESIOLOGY & BIOMECHANICS
1 INTRODUCTION
The human body is capable of many things in terms of movement. Since the beginning of
the 20th century, sport scientists have been studying human movements and trying to minimize
the wastage of movements in terms to achieve maximum output in the field. This chapter deals
with the concepts related to the human body and its movements. These movement components
apply to everyone as they are universal in nature. The concepts of movement are broadly divided
into two parts i.e., Biomechanics and kinesiology. Both of these are the basis of every principle
that applies on the human body and helps a person to move effectively.
In kinesiology and biomechanics, we study the bones, muscles, and joints involved in
different movements and after that we analyze the angle and sequence of the movement. So, if
we want to differentiate between biomechanics and kinesiology, we can say that the first one is
about the different body parts involved in the movement and the other is about angle and
sequence of the movement.
Different authors’ defined biomechanics in their own way such as James G. Hay defined
biomechanics as “The science that examines the internal and external forces acting on a
human body and the effects produced by these forces.” Biomechanics studies the impact of
forces on the human body, and it also helps us to get the information regarding safest movement
patterns. While on the other hand Burke defines kinesiology as “The study of the movement
behavior of all living organisms” so in simple words we can say that kinesiology helps us
understand our movement.
Biomechanics is important as it helps an athlete to bring precision in the sports

movement. To understand its importance, hypothesize there are ten world class athletes
participating in the final round of the 100m race in the Olympics and they are equal in all
aspects. At that point of time these insignificant things can impact in a big way. So,
biomechanics has different uses in sports. Let’s see some more uses:

1. Improvement in technique: Biomechanics helps in improvement in technique of an
athlete by rectifying the mistakes in the movement. Suppose a volleyball spiker hits the
ball but is unable to control the body after smashing. Observing this, the coach
understands that there is a problem with the follow through of the athlete.
2. Inventing and upgrading technique: If a coach or an athlete understands the movement
and motion and the forces acting upon the movement minutely then he/she can invent or
discover his/her own technique or can upgrade the already existing techniques. For
example, in the beginning high jumpers used to perform side roll technique but then a
player invented the Fosbury flop technique and won the gold medal in 1968 Olympics.
3. Inventing and upgrading sports equipment: With the help of biomechanics, scientists
invent and upgrade new equipment to protect athletes and help them enhance their sports
performance. Biomechanics is also used in daily life as well as in the designing and
manufacturing of equipment by pharma companies e.g. knee cap.
4. Prevention from injury: When we get injuries, we often don’t know their causes but
with the help of biomechanics, we get the idea about the forces exerted which caused the
injury. By understanding the cause, it is easier to prevent them from happening. And it
provides us with the necessary information to make changes in the technique and
equipment.
5. Improvement in training: Understanding of the movement analysis of an athlete,
changes can be made by the coaches/trainers in the training program, which can lead to
better training methods. Suppose an athlete may be lacking in endurance. By
understanding the deficiency, the trainer can make necessary changes in the training
schedule and method and can work on the endurance of an athlete.
6. Improvement in sports performance: Every coach and athlete has a single goal and that
is to improve the performance of the athlete. By understanding the movement and
applying the principles of movement, they can achieve their goal. It also helps in
preventing injuries which results in regular training that helps in maintaining the
momentum.

Every human does body movement and scientists believe that the first movement done by
a human being is in the womb of the mother, when the child kicks. These movements change and
improve as the baby grows. An infant first walks on hands and knees, and as the infant grows
older, begins to walk on two feet then starts running. These movements are done on an axis and a
plane.
AXIS: It is an imaginary line or point around which movement takes place and these axes are of
three types:
PLANE: It is an imaginary surface through which a movement takes place, and these are of
three types:

Relation between Axis and Plane: When we say that plane is a surface then we mean that it is a
horizontal or vertical floor on which any movement is going to take place and axis is that pen
which is going to stick at that point around which movement is going to take place. These planes
and axes divide the body into parts and help us to see or analyze the body movement. Every
plane has a combination with an axis and according to their relationship the movement takes
place. Every plane and axis makes a 90-degree angle so the movement can take place. Let us see
which plane and axis combine and which movement takes place at that combination.
1. Frontal Plane and Sagittal Axis:

Frontal plane divides the body into front and back half
as shown in the picture below. As you can see in the
picture that sagittal axis is the imaginary line which
passes through the body from the front making a 90
degree or perpendicular angle at the point of
intersection. The movements that can take place at that
point are abduction, adduction, inversion, and eversion.
For example, if you bend your head sideways or move
your body sideways.
2. Sagittal Plane and Frontal Axis

Sagittal plane divides the body into right and left half
whereas the frontal axis is the imaginary line that spikes
the body from one side to the other making the plane and
axis perpendicular to each other. The movements that can
take place at this point are Flexion, Extension,
dorsiflexion, and plantar flexion. For example, bicep curls
or simple squats or bending your head forward or
backward.

3. Transverse/Horizontal Plane and Vertical Axis:
Transverse or horizontal plane divides the body into upper
and lower half and vertical axis is the imaginary line that
spikes the body from top to bottom into left and right half
making the plane and axis perpendicular to each other. The
movements that can take place at this point are spine rotation,
limb rotation. For example, pivot in basketball.
Movement in sports is a fundamental aspect that underlies all athletic activities. It refers
to the physical actions and coordinated motions that athletes perform to achieve specific
objectives or tasks within their respective sports. The ability to move efficiently and effectively
is essential for success in most sports, as it directly impacts an athlete's performance, agility,
speed, power, and overall athletic prowess. Understanding movement in sports requires a
combination of physiological, biomechanical, and psychological factors. Athletes, coaches, and
sports scientists continually study and analyze movements to improve performance, prevent
injuries, and gain a competitive edge in sports.
When an object changes its position, it is said to be in motion and when it is not changing its
movement then it is in rest position. We change our position in every scenario every day, whether
we eat, walk, or even sleep, we change our position. Newton gave three laws of motion which
we use in everyday lifestyle, and they are universal in nature, which means that they will stay the
same irrespective of the situation. The three laws of motion are as follows:

● Law of Inertia: The first law of motion has two parts, first is that if any object is in rest
position then it will stay in rest position until some external force is applied on it. For
example, there is a car standing, it will not move until you press the accelerator or
manually push the car. Similarly, in sports, a javelin will stay in an athlete’s hand until
he/she throws the javelin. The second part of the law states that if an object is in motion
then it will stay in motion in the absence of an applied force. For example, the same car
moving at 80 km/h will stay in speed until the brakes are applied on the car. You might
say that, but the speed of the car will reduce and that is because of other factors like
friction. Similar is the case in sports, the javelin thrown will land at a certain point
because of the external forces acting upon it and those are friction and gravity.

● Law of momentum: The second law of motion is the mixture of mass and velocity. The
acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the force acting on the object and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Suppose you have a piece of paper in one
hand and a rubber ball in the other hand, when you drop both the things at the same
height the ball will touch the ground first because of its mass. Same way when you throw
a cricket ball and a basketball with the same force then the cricket ball will go further
because it has less mass. You must have noticed when players catch the ball in cricket,
they try to lower their hands so they can change the rate of momentum and avoid getting
hurt with the force of the ball.
● Law of Reaction: The third law of motion shows the relationship between different
movements and how these
movements work in pairs. The
law states that every action has an
equal and opposite reaction. A
daily life example of the third law
of motion is walking. When you
walk, your foot exerts a backward
force on the ground (action), and in return, the ground exerts an equal and opposite
forward force on your foot (reaction). This reactive force from the ground is what propels
you forward as you walk. In sports, when you swim. As you push the water backward
with your hands and feet (action), the water pushes you forward with an equal force
(reaction), allowing you to move through the water.

Friction is a force that resists or opposes the movement of one body over the other. It is
believed that friction is the force which acts as a barrier in any movement, but it also helps in the
efficient movement of an object. For example, the use of spike shoes in running, increases the
grip of a runner. Friction gives the necessary balance to the body for steady movement. If the
friction increases then the motion will be uncontrolled and if the friction decreases then there is a
chance of falling. There are four types of friction:
Static Friction: Static friction acts between two objects at the rest position. For example,
a ball resting on the table, the smallest amount of force needed to move that ball is known as
static friction. Static friction exists in the starting of any movement such as serving in badminton.
Sliding/Kinetic friction: When an object starts to slide or move then the sliding friction
is created. It is a drag between two surfaces sliding over one another and relates to the roughness
of the surface. For example, while skinning on the ice or jumping in the air, the resistance they
athletes experience is known as drag force. The athlete tries to increase the friction in many
sports. For example, grip on the handle of a cricket bat or badminton racquet or tennis racquet.
But there are examples in which athletes try to reduce the friction such as using magnesium

chalk in gymnastics. The athletes increase or decrease the grip according to the need of sport.
Sliding force can be seen in everyday life. For example, sliding a sofa or table.
Rolling Friction: Rolling friction is produced when two surfaces roll over one another.
Rolling friction also depends upon the type of surface also. If the surface is smooth then the
friction will be less whereas rolling friction increases on the smooth surface. You have
experienced rolling friction when you cycle, or roller skate, or you push a chair or suitcase with
small wheels on them. In sports also rolling of football or rolling of ball in hockey depends upon
the surface of the field.
Fluid Friction This friction occurs when objects move through fluid. Suppose a
swimmer is swimming. The waves produced by the ship displaces water as the ship moves, and
the frictional force in these cases is usually proportional to the speed of the moving object.

The center of gravity (CoG) is a crucial concept in sports that relates to the balance and
stability of athletes while performing various movements. Understanding the center of gravity
helps athletes optimize their performance, prevent injuries, and improve their overall efficiency.
Let's explore how the center of gravity is relevant in different sports:
● Balance and Stability: The center of gravity is the point in an athlete's body where the
mass is evenly distributed in all directions. For optimal balance and stability, athletes try
to keep their center of gravity low, as it provides a broader base of support. This is
particularly important in sports like gymnastics, diving, and figure skating, where
maintaining balance while executing complex movements is crucial.
● Athletic Posture: In sports like weightlifting and powerlifting, understanding the center
of gravity is vital for maintaining proper lifting form. Athletes need to keep their center
of gravity aligned with the barbell during lifts to prevent injury and improve their lifting
efficiency.
● Changing Direction: In sports that involve quick changes of direction, such as soccer,
basketball, and tennis, athletes shift their center of gravity to initiate movements
effectively. Low and stable center of gravity allows them to accelerate, decelerate, and
change directions more efficiently, making them more agile on the field.

● Jumping and Aerial Movements: In sports like basketball, volleyball, and high jump,
understanding the center of gravity is crucial for achieving maximum height and distance
in jumps. Athletes must position their center of gravity appropriately during take-off to
generate the most significant upward force.
● Cycling: Cyclists adjust their center of gravity while navigating turns and corners.
Lowering the center of gravity helps maintain stability during high-speed turns and
prevents toppling.
● Skiing and Snowboarding: Proper management of the center of gravity is essential for
maintaining balance and control on slopes. Skiers and snowboarders shift their weight to
adjust their trajectory and stability while descending.
● Golf: In golf, understanding the center of gravity is crucial for maintaining balance
during the swing. Proper weight transfer and alignment of the center of gravity with the
ball are essential for accurate shots.
● Equestrian Sports: Horseback riders need to understand their center of gravity to
maintain balance while riding and performing various maneuvers. Proper alignment helps
communicate with the horse effectively and prevent falls.
● Diving: Divers must control their center of gravity while executing complex aerial
maneuvers to achieve precise and graceful dives.
● Climbing: Rock climbers shift their center of gravity strategically to maintain balance
and stability while scaling challenging routes.
Equilibrium is the position when your body is in balance, it can be in motion or at rest.
Suppose you are standing, and you are not falling, or you are cycling, and you are in complete
balance, you are in equilibrium. It can be defined as when the sum of the forces and sum of the
movements action upon a body are equal to zero, the body is said to be in equilibrium. But
before understanding equilibrium lets learn about its most key factor i.e., centre of gravity.

Centre of Gravity: Centre of gravity is that point in the human body where the body
weight is distributed equally. It is the intersection of all the three planes of the body i.e., sagittal,
frontal, and transverse plane. This is the point from which the body can freely rotate in all
directions. The centre of gravity is different in a male and a female because of their body
structure. Centre of gravity in children is higher than that in adults. Whenever there is a structural
change in the human body, the centre of gravity will deviate from the normal. Centre of gravity
changes with every movement because we want to be in a balanced position. It is an imaginary
point that represents the weight centre of the body.
There is a connection between centre of gravity and equilibrium as they both are
responsible for the balance of the body, both in rest and in movement.
Equilibrium is divided into two parts:
1. Static Equilibrium
2. Dynamic equilibrium
Static Equilibrium: When the body is in rest or stationary position, then it is known as
static equilibrium. It is directly proportional to its base which means the greater the base of the
object greater the stability. It is also directly proportional to the weight of the body because the
centre of gravity lies in the base of the body. This is why it is indirectly proportional to the height
of the centre of gravity from the base. As you have noticed in wrestling, wrestlers spread their
legs to increase the area of the base and try to lower their centre of gravity so they cannot be
moved. Also, when we try to stop while running, we need our body so that we can lower our
centre of gravity and maintain our balance and can stop.
Dynamic Equilibrium: It is the ability of the body to stay in balance while performing
different body movements such as walking, jumping, and running. Whenever you are running
you try to balance your body by quickly stepping because it helps your body to stay in balance
and not fall. It mainly depends on the physiological factors such as maintenance of posture.
There is a definite pattern in the sports movements which helps athletes to stay in balance. For
example, in making a layup shot, their body suspends properly in the air to maintain the
equilibrium. We might have noticed whenever we try to jump or leap forward our hands and feet
move forward while our hips move downwards.

Athletes use complex body movements in numerous scenarios of the sports. Some
movements are repeated, and some are unique with respect to the sport. These movements can be
fundamental, or it can be complicated in nature. These movements can be classified into two
broader categories i.e., cyclic, and acyclic. Then these movements can also be used in different
combinations which we are going to learn in this chapter.
Cyclic Movement: This movement is continuous in nature and endurance is the

dominating factor in it. It requires a lot of coordination between different body parts. For
example, when you run then it is a cycling movement because you are continuously doing it and
the rhythm does not break. In cyclic movements a single movement is repeated. In sports the
example of cyclic movement is marathon running, rowing, cycling, swimming, or dribbling in
basketball.

Acyclic movement: Acyclic movements are those which are not happening continuously
or in a cycle. These movements are extraordinarily complex. For example, you switch on the TV,
once and then you watch the program. A variety of sports uses these situations such as shooting a
basketball, kicking a football, or punching an opponent in boxing.
Athletes use cyclic and acyclic movements in different combinations in the majority of
sports. There are three types of combination movements i.e., (cyclic, and cyclic movement),
(acyclic and acyclic movement), and (cyclic and acyclic movement).
Cyclic and Cyclic Movement: In this combination, an athlete does two cyclic
movements simultaneously in a repeated manner. For example, running and dribbling in
basketball is one example of this combination. In this, the player is running continuously and at
the same time dribbling continuously. We can also observe the same in handball as well where
players dribble the ball and run simultaneously.

Acyclic and Acyclic Movement: It is the combination where the movements are of
acyclic in nature. Let us understand this with an example. Suppose you are a fielder in cricket
and a ball comes towards you and you catch the ball and throw it back to the keeper. You have
just performed two movements, catching and throwing, which are acyclic in nature.
Cyclic and Acyclic Movement: Athletes extensively use cyclic and acyclic combination
type of movements in many sports where one movement is cyclic and other is acyclic in nature.
For example, javelin throw in which an athlete runs which is a cyclic movement and then throws
the javelin which is an acyclic movement. Athletes extensively use cyclic and acyclic
combination type of movement in high jump, long jump, or in hammer throw.

We use our body to lift, pull, and push heavy objects. Have you ever wondered how we
can do such things? It is difficult to visualize an individual’s body as a system of levers. Our
body has several types of anatomical levers which cannot be changed but if we understand their
functioning then we can use our body very wisely. A lever is nothing but a rigid bar that turns
above an axis. It has three points i.e., force point, resistance point and the fulcrum. With the
combination and arrangements of these three points, we get three types of levers i.e.,
1. First class lever

2. Second class lever
3. Third class lever
First Class Lever: The first-class lever is used to produce balanced movement when the
fulcrum is midway between the force and resistance. These levers are very general in nature. For
example, you must have seen a seesaw in the park, or a scale used by local vegetable vendors,
where they place the weight on one side and the commodity on the other while holding the scale
from the middle. Athletes use this lever in many sports actions such as lifting heavy weight in
flexion and extension movement, where the weight in hand acts as the resistance, your elbow as
a fulcrum and your biceps as a force.

Second Class Lever: In the second-class lever, the fulcrum is on one end and force on
the other, while resistance is in between the two. In this a small force can move the large objects
easily. You see second class lever used in various places everyday such as doors, or staplers in
which the resistance is between the fulcrum and the force. In the human body we use many
movements where second-class lever is required such as standing on the toes, where your toes
are the fulcrum, the articulation of your tibia is resistance with the foot is resistance and the pull
of planter flexion is the force applied.
Third Class Lever: In this type of lever, we have fulcrum and resistance on either side,
with force in between. Speed and range of motion is produced in a large amount in the third class
lever. Majority of the levers in the human body are of the third type. There are many examples of
third-class lever in day-to-day lives such as a broom, tong, or a fishing road. In sports also we
use this type of lever in many events such as hitting a ball with a bat or throwing a hammer in
hammer throw.

Activity Zone

Let’s find out the name of some movements in the following puzzle:

1. A study was conducted on “Kinematic description of selected exercises of lower
extremities. This study was conducted on ten subjects. Each subject had performed
each selected exercises namely squats, quadriceps extension, hamstring curl and leg
press with 15 repetition maximum load for 15 repetitions. The mean value of knee
flexion of 15 repetitions are shown below.
Table: (1.1)Knee Flexion of 15 Repetitions (Values in Degree)

Exercise 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Squats 79 80 82 82 83 81 82 81 83 82 82 81 82 82 79
Quadriceps 103 103 102 102 103 102 103 104 104 104 103 104 102 102 97
Extension
Hamstring Curl 82 79 80 79 80 78 78 79 79 79 79 80 80 80 81
Leg Press 98 98 97 98 98 98 99 99 99 99 99 98 99 98 95

● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of squats
exercise is 79 degree for 1st repetition, 80 degree for 2nd repetition, 82
degree for 3rd repetition, and so on, which indicates that the minimum knee
flexion is 79 degree for 1st & 15th repetition and maximum knee flexion is
83 degrees for 5th & 9th repetition.
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of quadriceps
extension exercise is 103 degree for 1st repetition, 103 degree for 2nd
repetition, 102 degree for 3rd repetition, and so on, which indicates that the
minimum knee flexion is 97 degree for 15th repetition and maximum knee
flexion is 104 degree for 8th, 9th & 10th repetition.
● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of hamstring
curl exercise is 82 degree for 1st repetition, 79 degree for 2nd repetition, 80
degree for 3rd repetition, and so on, which indicates that the minimum knee
flexion is 78 degree for 6th & 7th repetition and maximum knee flexion is 82
degree for 1st repetition.

● As you have seen the data shown in the tables. The mean value of leg press
exercise is 98 degree for 1st repetition, 98 degree for 2nd repetition, 97 degree
for 3rd repetition, and so on, which indicates that the minimum knee flexion is
95 degree for 15th repetition and maximum knee flexion is 99 degree for 7th
to 11th & 13th repetition.
(a) Is it primary or secondary data for the researcher? Justify.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) On an average in which exercise knee angle is minimum with respect to others.
Give proper justification.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) On an average in which exercise knee angle is maximum with respect to others.
Give proper justification.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Observe table 1.1, Identify the exercise/s in which you see a drop down of knee
angle in the 15th repetition. Justify.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. A study was conducted on “A Kinematics Analysis of Three Best 100 M
Performances Ever” of Usain Bolt.
Given below is the data and graphical representation of Usain Bolt's 100 m
performance for the year 2008, 2009, and 2012. Read it carefully and give answers
to the questions.
Distance Olympic Games 2008 World Championship 2009 Olympic Games 2012
(meter) [Seconds (s)] [Seconds (s)] [Seconds (s)]
0 – 10 1.85 1.89 1.91
10 – 20 1.02 0.99 1.01
20 – 30 0.91 0.90 0.92
30 – 40 0.87 0.86 0.86
40 – 50 0.85 0.83 0.84
50 – 60 0.82 0.82 0.82
60 – 70 0.82 0.81 0.81
70 – 80 0.82 0.82 0.81
80 – 90 0.83 0.83 0.82
90 – 100 0.90 0.83 0.83
Total 9.69 9.58 9.63

● The time taken in every 10 meters as well as to complete the 100 m race by Usain
Bolt in his three best performances is shown in the above table. As you have seen in
the data, Usain Bolt took minimum time to complete the first 10 meters in Olympic
Games 2008 i.e. 1.85s which indicates it is his best start out of his top three
performances.
● As you have seen in the data Usain Bolt takes the same time in 50 to 60 meter
distance interval in all of his top three performances i.e. 0.82s which indicates that
in the given distance interval, his speed is constant in his top three performances.
● As you have seen in the data Usain Bolt takes the same time in 50 to 60, 60 to 70,
& 70 to 80-meter distance intervals with no acceleration (no change in speed) in the
Olympic Game 2008 performances i.e. 0.82s which indicates that in these distance
intervals he has constant speed.
● As you have seen in the data Usain Bolt takes maximum time in 90 to 100-meter
distance intervals in the Olympic Game 2008 i.e. 0.90s which is 0.07 seconds
higher than other two performances. That can be the one of the major reasons for
taking more time to finish the 100 m race out of top three performances i.e. 9.69
seconds.
(a) Is it primary or secondary data for you as a student? Justify.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
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(b) Identify in which year Usain Bolt has the best start. Considering these three top
performances, find the difference between best and least start time for the first 10
meters.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) State the distance intervals, for all three tournaments (as shown in the table)
where the acceleration is zero.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

(d) Identify the lever used by a runner in any 100 m race. Explain all its parts with the
help of a well labeled diagram pointing resistance arm, force arm, and fulcrum.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Sources of Research:
1. Ahlawat U. K, “Kinematic Description of Selected Exercises of Lower
Extremities”, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of
Delhi, June 2016.
2. Mackala Krzysztof, Antti Mero, “A Kinematics Analysis of Three Best 100 m
Performances Ever”, Journal of Human Kinetics, 2013, 36 (1), 149-160.

● Acyclic Movement: Acyclic movements are those which are not happening
continuously. These movements are extraordinarily complex. Variety of sports uses these
situations such as shooting a basketball, kicking a football, punching an opponent in
boxing etc.
● Axis: It is an imaginary line or point around which movement takes place.
● Biomechanics: The science that examines the internal and external forces acting on a
human body and the effects produced by these forces.
● Centre of Gravity: Centre of gravity is that point in the human body where the body
weight is distributed equally.
● Cyclic Movement: Cyclic movements a single movement is repeated again and again. In
sports the example of cyclic movement is marathon running, rowing, cycling, swimming,
dribbling in basketball etc.
● Dynamic Equilibrium: It is the ability of the body to stay in balance while performing
different body movements such as walking, jumping, running.
● Equilibrium: It can be defined as the sum of the forces and sum of the movements action
upon a body are equal to zero, the body is said to be in equilibrium.
● Fluid Friction: Fluid friction is the force that opposes a motion that takes place within
fluids.
● Frontal Axis: It is the imaginary line that spikes the body from one side to the another
(right to left or left to right).
● Frontal Plane: Frontal plane is perpendicular to the ground and divides the body into
anterior (front) and posterior (back). It is also known as the coronal plane.
● Horizontal Plane: It is an anatomical plane that divides the body into superior and
inferior sections. It is also known as the transverse plane.
● Inertia: Inertia is defined as a property of matter by which it remains at the state of rest
or in uniform motion in the same straight line unless acted upon by some external force.
● Kinesiology: It is the scientific study of human body movement.
● Lever: A lever is a simple machine made of a rigid beam and a fulcrum. The effort (input
force) and load (output force) are applied to either end of the beam. The fulcrum is the
point on which the beam pivots.
● Momentum: It is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.
● Movement: Movement is the change in the position of a body part with respect to the
whole body.
● Plane: It is an imaginary surface through which a movement takes place.
● Rolling Friction: Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely over
a surface.
● Sagittal Axis: It is an imaginary line passes through the body from front to back.
● Sagittal Plane: It is an imaginary surface which divides the body into right and left half.

● Sliding Friction: It is a frictional force that appears when two bodies come into sliding
contact. This friction can also be referred to as kinetic friction.
● Sports Movement: Sports movement skills are basic movements such as throwing,
kicking, running, jumping, hopping and catching. These movement skills applied to a
sports situation for example, kicking a soccer ball, running a sprint, jumping up for a
basketball rebound, catching a baseball.
● Static Equilibrium: It refers to the physical state of the object, in which the components
of the object are at rest and the net force acting on an object should be zero.
● Static Friction: Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest.
● Vertical Axis: It is the imaginary line that spikes the body from top to bottom and
perpendicular to the ground.

● Pedagogic Kinesiology by Dr Dhananjoy Shaw
● Biomechanics and Kinesiology of Human Motion by Dr Dhananjoy Shaw
● Mechanical Basis of Biomechanics by Dr Dhananjoy Shaw
● Wiki page: Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_plane
(Topic: Anatomical Plane)
● You tube video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Grh4y0puw0k
(Topic: Biomechanics- Planes & Axes Of Human Body)

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STUDENT COMPANION

Delhi Board of School Education |1

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S. No. Content Page No.

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Training method is important for different athletes playing different sports

1.1.MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF SPORTS TRAINING

Sports training is a method and a systematic process by which we improve the

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1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SPORTS

● General Physical Development: General physical development is the basic level

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● Technical Development: Technical development is understanding the technical

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● Team Cohesion: Often in our life we work in teams whether it is school or

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● Improved Efficiency: When we do something daily it tends to improve our

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SPORTS TRAINING

Sports training is a scientific method which works by certain principles that

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● Principle of Individual Difference: Every individual is different with respect to

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● Principle of Cyclicity: Learning is a process, and it should be done by giving

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2 PATH OF ADAPTATION IN TRAINING

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Hardayal Singh defined load as “Physiological and psychological demands placed on

The load can be divided into two parts:

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD AND RECOVERY

Condition (I): Proper Balance between Load and Recovery

Condition (II): Load is Less, and Recovery is More

Result: Decline in Performance

Result: Decline in Performance

To attain a high level of performance an athlete must go through a strict,

2.2 OVERLOAD AND ITS SYMPTOMS

Overloading is of two types:

2. Dominance of relaxation: This state occurs when the training overload is

2.3 CONDITIONS AFFECTING ADAPTATION

3 BIO-MOTOR ABILITIES AND THEIR DEVELOPING METHODS IN SPORTS

3.1 SPEED ITS TYPES AND DEVELOPING METHODS

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Some Examples of Speed in daily life

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DEVELOPING METHODS OF SPEED

● Acceleration Run: It is usually used to develop speed indirectly by improving explosive

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Strength is the ability of muscles of an individual to overcome resistance. We can also

Some Examples of Strength in daily life

Strength has so many classifications based on the requirement of strength. Sometimes