Chapter 2 Chemistry For Engineers Final Module 2

Chapter 2
Chemistry for Engineers ATOMIC STRUCTURES, MOLECULAR MASS,

ACIDS AND BASES
INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the backbone in designing and understanding the nature of various engineering
materials. Many advances in engineering and technology either produce a chemical demand like polymers,
chemical developments for their application in powder metallurgy and alloys, preventing methods of
pollution etc.
Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their interactions and
transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create
chemical compounds or molecule. As such, chemistry studies the involvement of electrons and various forms
of energy in chemical reactions.
Atom is the smallest form of a chemical particle that retains the properties of the particle. The
word 'atom' comes from the Greek word 'atomos', meaning 'unable to be cut'. The original meaning of atom
was the smallest, indivisible form of a chemical particle. Now we know how to divide atoms into sub-atomic
particles, the definition of an atom includes the concept that the particle must retain its chemical properties.
Atoms and Molecules are the building blocks of chemistry.
Chemistry is chiefly concerned with atoms and molecules and their interactions and
transformations, for example, the properties of the chemical bonds formed between atoms to create
chemical compounds or molecule. As such, chemistry studies the involvement of electrons and various forms
of energy in chemical reactions.
An important part of studying chemistry is learning how to interpret nature by thinking about
what atoms and molecules are doing. Certainly, it can take some time to get comfortable with this type of
thinking. Individual atoms and molecules are difficult to observe, so often we must infer what they are doing
from indirect evidence. Chemistry has matured tremendously during the past century by building an
increasingly thorough understanding of atoms and molecules.
Answers all the indicated “Check your understanding” in every topics.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After mastering this module, you should be able to: After mastering this module, you should be able to:
1. distinguish among atomic number, mass number, isobars and isotopes.
2. present the quantum mechanical model of the atom
3. explain the electronic structure of atoms in terms of main energy levels, sublevels, and orbitals, and relate
this to energy.
4. draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configurations of atoms.
5. write isotopic symbols.
6. identify common isotopes and their uses.
7. Periodic Table
8. differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions and give examples.
9. represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models.
10. give the similarities and differences between empirical formula and molecular formula of a
compound.
11. define a mole
12. illustrate Avogadro’s number with examples.
13. determine the molar mass of elements and compounds.
14. calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an element or compound or vice versa.
15. calculate the molecular formula given molar mass.
16. differentiate the theories of Acids and Bases
17.learn the application of pH in Industries
Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Section 1.1 : ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An Atom is the smallest invisible particle of element, having all the characteristics of the parent element,
which can neither be created nor destroyed by any chemical change. It cannot exist freely. It is the
ultimate particle of an element, which may or may not have independent existence. The atoms of certain
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.do not have independent existence whereas atoms of
group 8 elements such as helium, neon, argon, etc. do have independent existence. All elements are
composed of atoms.
Fundamental particles of an atom
The three main fundamentals particles of atoms of almost all elements except for Hydrogen which is the
only element that do not have neutron. They are electrons, protons and neutrons.
1. PROTON (p+)
a. The proton is a positively charged particle (+),it has unit positive charge and unit mass.
b. The mass of proton is approximately equal to the mass of one hydrogen atom. It is equal
to 1.00732 amu.
c.The proton are present inside the nucleus of an atom of all the elements
2. ELECTRON (e-)
a. The electron is a negatively charged particle(-), It has unit negative charge and negligible mass.
b. The mass of and electron is about 1/1837 of mass of a hydrogen atom.
c. Electrons are present in all the atoms and revolving around the nucleus in various circular orbits
(shell).
3.NEUTRON (n)
a. The neutron is a neutral particle and it has no charge.
b. It has a unit mass and present in atoms of all elements except hydrogen.
c. The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton. It is equal to 1.00871 amu.
d. Neutron is present inside the nucleus of an atom.
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The atomic number is the number protons present in the nucleus of an atom or number of
electrons revolving around the nucleus in an atom.
Many atomic symbols are fairly obviously derived from the name of the element, such as the use
of C for carbon in our example. For other elements, the symbol is based on the Latin name. The symbol for
iron, for example; is Fe, de rived from the Latin name from ferrum. The atomic mass of an element may be
defined as the ratio between the mass of one atom of the element and 1/12th of mass of an atom of
carbon based on the carbon standard.
Atomic number = No of protons = No of electrons
The general atomic symbol can be written as
where; E represents the atomic symbol for the element in question,

A (the superscript) is the mass number,
Z (the subscript) is the atomic number.
‫ڰ‬
For example: carbon ‫ڰ‬
with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, iron with 26 protons and 30 neutrons.

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
MASS NUMBER (A)
The mass number of an element is given by the total number of protons (p) and neutrons (n) present
in the nucleus of an atom.
A= (p+n) ; Therefore the number of neutrons is n = A-Z.
ISOTOPES ( )
The isotopes are atoms of the same elements having the same atomic number but different mass number
. e.g. Isotope of oxygen: ‫ڰ‬ , .
ISOBAR
Isobars are the atoms of different elements having the same mass number but different atomic number.
Example: ‫ڰ‬ , ‫ڰ & ڰ ڰ‬ , ‫ڰ‬
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
The atom is consists of two parts;
1. The Central Nucleus:

The nucleus is the central part of an atom consists of protons and neutrons, having a positive part
of an atom since the protons are positively charged particle and neutrons are neutral. The entire
weight of an atom is present only in the nucleus.
2. The outer extra nuclear part.
It is the part around the nucleus whicht contains all electrons of an atom. It is the negative part of
the atom where the electrons are revolving around the nucleus in a regular path called shell or
orbit or energy levels.
shell or orbit or energy levels

are numbered, as 1,2,3,4 etc from the nucleus. They are also known as K, L, M, N Shell or
orbit.
Each shell can accommodate only certain number of electron, which is given by the formula
maximum no. of electrons of orbits = 2n2 , where; ‘n’ is the number of the shell.
no. of orbit shell or orbit or energy levels maximum no. of electrons

of orbits = 2n2
1 K 2(1)2= 2
2 L 2(2)2= 8
3 M 2(3)2= 18
4 N 2(4)2= 32
Therefore, the numbers of electrons that are accommodated in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd shell respectively
are 2,8,18, 32.
valence electron (ve) is the electrons present in the outer most energy level.
Atom as whole is a neutral one. Since the,
No. of protons (positively charges) = No. of electrons (negative charges).

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
FORMATION OF CATION AND ANION
Atom as whole is a neutral one, since the number of proton and electrons are equal. An atom becomes an
ion only when there is a gain or loss of an electron.
Anion a negatively charge ion is formed by the gain of electron.
Cation a positively charge ion is formed by the loss of electron.
Example.1. Hydrogen atom

Number of proton = 1 (number of positive charge is +1)
Number of electron = 1 (number of negative charge is -1)
Number of neutron = 0
So, Atomic no. (Z)=1 , Mass no. (A)=1

When hydrogen atom losses its outer most electron, it has only one proton. The H becomes H+ ion due to
the loss of one electron. Hence, the H+ ion is called as proton.
H H+(proton) +1e−
A – Z= 1-1 = 0(No neutron)
Example.2. Sodium and Chlorine atom

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
CATION FORMATION is when an atom losses an electron it becomes cation.
Na (Atom) Na+ (cation).

From the example(figure) above, the electron is transferred from Sodium atom to chlorine atom, therefore
the sodium atom becomes positively charge ion or cation.
ANION FORMATION is when an atom gains an electron, it becomes anion

+
Cl (Atom) Cl− (Anion)
Given the example(figure) above, chlorine atom gains an electron from sodium and it becomes an anion or a
negatively charge ion.
ELECTRONIC CONCEPT OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
The electronic concept of oxidation and reduction can be explained as below.
OXIDATION is a process that involves removal (loss) of electrons.
Example: Na Na+
K K+
H H+ ;
Here Na, K and H are oxidised into Na+, K+ and H+ respectively.
REDUCTION is a process that involves addition (gain) of electrons.

+
Example: Cl Cl−
+
F F−
+
Br Br−
Here Cl, F and Br are reduced into Cl- , F- and Br– respectively.
What is chemical bonding?
Atoms combine to make compounds by forming chemical bonds. Several different types of chemical bonds
are possible, and once we learn to recognize them, these types of bonds will help us to understand some
of the chemical properties of many substances.
When two atoms in a molecule strongly tend to remain together, they are said to be in chemical bonding
with each other. In other words, it is said that a chemical bond has been established between the two
atoms. Thus, “A chemical bond may be defined as an attraction between the two atoms in a molecule”
Why do atoms combine?

There is a deep relationship between the properties and the electrons lying in their outermost orbits. The
elements having same number of valency electrons have similar properties. The elements in the zero
groups have two or eight electrons are inactive chemically.
All chemical bonds share two characteristics. First all bonds involve exchange or sharing of electrons.
Second, this exchange or sharing of electrons result in lower energy for the compound relative to separate
atoms.

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
OCTET RULE
The inert gases have the stable configuration of eight electrons (octet structure) in their outer most orbits
except helium which 2 have only electrons. Due to their stable octet structure, these gases are inert in
nature. They do not chemically react with other elements. ”According to Lewis “octet theory, all the
elements with an unstable or incomplete electronic configuration have a tendency to attain the stable
electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas configuration either by complete transfer of valence
electron from one atom to another or by mutual sharing of valence electron between the atoms”. This
tendency to attain the stable electronic configuration is responsible for the formation of chemical bonding.
INERT GASES OR NOBLE GASES

Element Atomic number Electronic configuration
Helium 2 2 (H-1 unstable-for stable-2) 2= 2
Neon 10 2, 8 2+8= 10
Argon 18 2,8,8 2+8+8 = 18
Krypton 36 2,8,18,8 2+8+18+8 =36
Xenon 54 2,8,18,18,8 2+8+18+18+8=54
Radon 86 2,8,18,32,18,8 2+8+18+32+18+8=86
TYPES OF BONDING
The process by which unstable atoms acquire a stable configuration has been found to take place in two
different ways.
1. Ionic bond (or) Electrovalent bonding is defined as the complete transfer of valency electrons from one
atom to another.
2. Covalent bonding is defined as the the mutual sharing of (pair of) valency electrons between the atoms.
The shared pair of electrons is given by both atoms.
A chemical bond will not form, or will have only a fleeting existence, unless it lowers the overall energy of
the collection of atoms involved covalent bonds. But ionic bonding is important in many compounds that
are used to initiate or sustain the reactions needed to grow a polymer.
1. Ionic (or) Electrovalent Bond

This type of bond is formed as a result of the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to
other. This bond is generally present in inorganic compounds.
Example: Formation of Sodium Chloride

Explanation :
Na: The atomic number of sodium is 11 (11P/11e=11+/11- )
The electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1(2, 8, 1).
The electron dot formula is Na .
Sodium has only one electron in its outermost orbital.
Cl: The atomic number of chlorine is 17(17p/17e=17+/17- )

The electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 (2, 8, 7)
The electron dot formula is

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Sodium has one electron in excess of the stable neon configuration (2, 8). and chlorine is one electron short
of the stable argon configuration (2, 8, 8). When these atoms are in contact, sodium has a tendency to lose
its single valence electron and chlorine has a tendency to accept a single electron to reach the stable
electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas. By transferring one electron from sodium to chlorine,
sodium acquires a unit positive charge while by gaining the electron; the chlorine atom acquires a unit
negative charge.
Now sodium has attained the stable electronic configuration of neon (2,8).Similarly chlorine has attained the
stable electronic configuration of neon(2,8,8). These charged ions are held together by electrostatic
attraction and form a neutral molecule of sodium chloride.
Compounds formed in this way are called electrovalent or ionic compounds and the bond is called Ionic
bond or electrovalent bond.
Check your understanding
Show the formation of BaBr2 and KF.
2. Covalent bond
Formation of a covalent compound(NH3)
This type of bond is formed by the mutual sharing of pair of electrons between two atoms each atom
supplying equal number of electrons for sharing. The covalent bond is indicated by (-).
Example : Formation of Ammonia (NH3 ).

Explanation:
The atomic no of Nitrogen is 7. (E.C:2, 5 unstable).

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
The electronic configuration 1s2,2s2,2p3.

The electron dot formula of N is
The atomic number of Hydrogen is 1.

The electronic configuration 1s1(E.C:1 unstable). To get stable electronic configuration Nitrogen shares its
three electrons with electrons of three Hydrogen atoms.
The electron dot formula is H.
Ammonia (NH3 ) is formed by the covalent bonding between one atom of hydrogen and three atoms of
hydrogen. Nitrogen has five valence electrons. The electronic configuration is 2,5(unstable). Therefore, it
needs three electrons to attain stable inert gas configuration. Hydrogen has one electron. So it needs one
electron to attain the stable inert gas configuration of Helium. The nitrogen atom shares three of its valence
electron with three hydrogen atom forming the covalent bonds. All the four atoms attain the stable
configuration. Thus, the covalent bond is formed.
Show the formation of N2 and Br2
The Periodic Table
One of the most recognizable tools of chemistry is the periodic table. In 1869, Russian scientist
Dmitri Mendeleev had published his first periodic table and enumerated the periodic law; when properly
arranged, the elements display a regular and periodic variation in their chemical properties. The discovery
of the periodic law and construction of the periodic table represents one of the significant creative insights
in the history of chemistry. As more and more elements were discovered, that task became increasingly
daunting. The periodic table helped the study of chemistry to expand quickly by providing a simple visual
means to organize the elements in terms of their chemical and physical properties.

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Periods and Groups

The modern periodic table simultaneously arranges elements in two important ways:
1. Periods is the horizontal rows of the table. The term “period” is used for the rows because many
important properties of the elements vary systematically as we move across a row.
Each color represents a period (row) in the table. Because the elements in the periodic table are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, moving across each segment of the graph correspond
to moving from left to right across the corresponding row of the periodic table. You can see readily that
as we move across a row in this way, the density of the elements is usually small, increases until passing
through a maximum, and then decreases again.
2. Groups or Family is the vertical columns. Elements in a group (column) combine with the same number
of hydrogen atoms and all fall in the same group.
The groups of elements were assigned names and those names have remained with them.
GROUPS OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODIC TABLE

Group I. Alkali metals
1. Lithium , Li 3. Potassium, K 5. Cesium, Cs
2. Sodium, Na 4. Rubidium, Rb 6. Francium, Fr
Group II. Alkaline earth metals
1. Beryllium, Be 3. Calcium, Ca 5. Barium, Ba
2. Magnesium, Mg 4. Strontium, Sr 6. Radium, Ra
Group III. Boron group
1. Boron, B 3. Gallium, Ga 5. Titanium, Ti
2. Aluminum, Al 4. Indium, In
Group IV. Carbon group
1. Carbon, C 3. Germanium, Ge 5. Lead, Pb
2. Silicon, Si 4. Tin, Sn
Group V. Nitrogen group
1. Nitrogen, N 3. Arsenic, As 5. Bismuth, Bi
2. Phosphorous, P 4. Antimony, Sb
Group VI. Chalcogens
1. Oxygen, O 3. Selenium, Se 5. Polonium, Po
2. Sulfur, S 4. Tellurium, Te
Group VII. Halogens
1. Flourine, F 3. Bromine, Br 5. Astatine, At
2. Chlorine, Cl 4. Iodine, I
Group VIII. Noble gases or Group 0
1. Helium, He 3. Argon, Ar 5. Xenon, Xe
2. Neon, Ne 4. Krypton, Kr 6. Radon, Rn
There are also names for different regions of the table. Elements in the two groups on the left side
of the table and the six groups on the right side are collectively referred to as representative elements, or
main group elements. Elements that separate these two parts of the representative groups in the main
body of the periodic table are called transition metals. Iron is an example of a transition metal. The
elements that appears below the rest of the periodic table are called lanthanides (named after the
element lanthanum, Z=57) and actinides (named after the element actinium, Z=89)

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
In addition to these names, several numbering systems have been used to designate groups.
Current convention dictates numbering from left to right starting with 1and proceeding to 18. Thus, for
example, the group containing C, Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb is referred to as Group 14.
Another way to classify an element is as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloid
Another way to classify an element is as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.

1. Metals. most of the elements are metals and their general location in the periodic table is toward the
left and bottom.
 Metals share a number of similarities in chemical and physical properties.
 Physically, metals are shiny, malleable, and ductile (meaning they can be pulled into wires).
 Metals are solid at room temperature.
 They also conduct electricity, so wires are always made from metals.
 Chemical properties can be also be used to distinguish metals.
 Metallic elements tend to form cations in most of their compounds, for example.
2. Nonmetals occupy the upper right-hand portion of the periodic table and there are fewer nonmetals
than metals.
 The relative importance of nonmetals is their role in the chemistry of living things.
 Most of the molecules that make up the human body consist predominantly or exclusively of the
nonmetallic elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. As our
examples so far might lead you to guess, polymers also consist almost exclusively of nonmetallic
elements.
 They do not conduct heat well and in its solid form are brittle.
 Physically nonmetals are not shiny, malleable, or ductile
 Nonmetals may be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature.
 They are not good conductors of electricity.
3. Metalloids or semimetals. An elements which cannot be classified easily as either metal or nonmetal. In
the periodic table, metalloids are clustered along a diagonal path. This categorization gives us some
useful flexibility and also emphasizes that properties change gradually rather than abruptly as one
moves across or down the periodic table.
10

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Name __________________________ Course & Yr. __________ Date _________ Score _____
. Learning Exercises
1. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars What is the charge of a nucleus of an atom?
2. What is the charge of the following:

a. nucleus
b. cation
c. anion
3. Distinguish between oxidation and reduction.
4. What is the number of neutrons present in the atom of the element whose atomic number and mass
number is 20 and 40 respectively?
5. Illustrate the formation of a cation and anion with example respectively.
6. Why do we call H+ion as a proton?
7. Explain why atoms of elements combine?
8. Show the formation of NaCl and NH3.
9. State the reason why atoms of most of the elements are unstable but atoms of noble gases are stable.
10. Which is more stable K or K+? Br or Br-? Why?

LE
11

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Section 1.2 : MOLECULAR MASS

A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter(element or a compound) that can exit freely. The molecule is
made up of two or more atoms of the same element or different elements. It can be further divided into
atoms.
Types of molecules: Molecules are of two types
1. Homoatomic molecule
The molecule is made up of two or more atoms of the same elements.
Molecules of Chlorine(Cl2), Oxygen(O2), and Hydrogen(H2) contain only two atoms of same kind.
So they are called as Homoatomic molecules.
Most of the elementary gases consist of homoatomic molecules. For example hydrogen gas consists of two
atoms of hydrogen (H2).Similarly oxygen gas consists of two atoms of oxygen (O2).
In accordance with the number of atoms present in these molecules they are classified as mono atomic, di-
atomic, tri-atomic and polyatomic molecules showing that they contain one, two, three, or more than three
atoms respectively.
2. Heteroatomic molecules
The molecule is made up of more than two of more atoms of different elements. Thus in the
molecule of carbon dioxide one atom of carbon & two atoms of oxygen have united. Hence, it is
called as Heteroatomic molecules.
MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular formula is the short form of representation (symbolical) of one molecule of an element or a
compound.
Example:
Molecular formula of Oxygen is O2 (element.).
Molecular formula of water is H2O (compound)
Molecular Mass of an an element or compound Element / Compound = Mass of one molecule

of 1/12
part by mass of carbon

Calculation of Molecular Mass:
Molecular mass can be calculated as the sum of total atomic mass of each element present in one molecule
of an element or a compound.
Example:
1. Molecular mass of O2 = Atomic mass x No of atoms
(Oxygen=16) = 16 x 2 = 32
2. Molecular mass of NH3 = Atomic mass x No of atoms
= (14 x 1) + (1 x 3) = 17
12

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Atomic mass: (Nitrogen=14) and (Hydrogen=1)
Calculate the molecular mass of NaCl (table salt) and C12H22O11(sugar)
MOLE:
If the molecular mass is expressed in grams, then it is called gram molecular mass or one mole. The
mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance. One mole of
any substance contains Avagadro number of particles i.e.,6.023X1023 particles.(Atom, ion or molecules).
thh ࢘tࢇh
Number of Moles =
H t࢘ thh
Sample Problem:
1. Molecular mass of O2 = 32
Gram molecular mass of O2 = 32gms
32 gms of O2 = 1 mole of O2
2 mole of O2 = 64 g.
2. How many moles are represented by 4.4 gms. of CO2 ?
Atomic Mass of Carbon = 12
Atomic Mass of Oxygen = 16
Molecular mass of CO2 = (12 x 1) + (16 x 2) = 12 + 32 = 44
Required: Number of Moles of CO2
Solution:
thh ࢘tࢇh . ࢘tࢇh
Number of Moles of CO2=
H t࢘ thh
= = 0.1 mole
Thus no of moles of CO2 is 0.1 mole.
3. How many moles are present in 8.5gms of Ammonia(NH3)?

Atomic Mass of Nitrogen = 14
Atomic Mass of Hydrogen = 1
Molecular mass of Ammonia (NH3) = (14 x 1) + (1 x 3 ) = 14 + 3 = 17
Required: Number of Moles of NH3
Solution:
thh ࢘tࢇh .h ࢘tࢇh
Number of Moles of NH 3=
H t࢘ thh
= = 0.5 mole
Thus no of moles of NH3 is 0.5 mole.
4. How many grams of SO2 are present in 0.4 moles of SO2?

Atomic Mass of Sulphur = 32
Atomic Mass of Oxygen = 16
Number of Moles of SO2 = 0.4 moles
Molecular mass of SO2 = (32 x 1 ) + (2 x 16 ) = 64 gram
Req’d: grams of SO2
Solution:
thh ࢘tࢇh
Number of Moles of SO2=
H t࢘ thh
;by cross multiplication
Mass in grams SO2 = Number of Moles of SO2 x Molecular Mass
13

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
= 0.4 x 64 = 25.6 grams

Thus the grams of SO2 is 25.6 grams.
5. How many moles of Carbon atoms are present in three moles of C3H8?
1 mole of C3H8 has 3 moles of carbon

3 moles of C3H8 will have 9 moles of carbon atoms.
Thus the no. of moles of Carbon is 9 moles in every 3 moles of C3H8.
1. How many grms of NaCl are presnt in 0.6 moles of NaCl?

2. How many moles of Ca atoms in three moles Ca3N2?
AVOGADRO NUMBER
Avogadro Number denoted by N. It is defined as “the number of atoms or molecules present in one mole
of an element or a compound respectively”. It has been found to be equal to 6.023 x 1023.
We have seen that, according to one of the applications of Avogadro’s hypothesis, one molecular mass (i.e.
one mole) of every gas occupies 22.4 litres at S.T.P. Now according to Avogadro’s hypothesis equal
volumes of all gases at S.T.P contain equal number of molecules. Hence it follows that 1 mole of every gas
contains the same number of molecules. This number is called the Avogadro’s number or Avogadro's
Constant.
Example
One mole of CO2 = 44g
44 g of CO2 contains 6.023 x 1023molecules
One molar volume of CO2 = 22.4 liter
22.4 liter of CO2 contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules
One mole of H2O = 18g

18 gms of H2O contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules
One mole of Oxygen atom = 16g

16 gms of Oxygen contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms
Sample Problem:
1. How many molecules are present in 49g of H2SO4?

One mole of H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98g
No of molecules in 98g of H2SO4= 6.023 x 1023
( .‫ ڰ‬x  ‫ ) ڰ‬x
No of molecules in 49g of H2SO4= = 3.0115 x 1023
2. Calculate the mass of an atom of Carbon?

One mole of Carbon atoms = 12g
Mass of 6.023 x 1023 atoms of Carbon = 12g
‫ڰ‬
Mass of one atom of Carbon = .‫ ڰ‬x  ‫ = ڰ‬1.992 x 10-23 g
3. What is the mass of a molecule of Ammonia?
14

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
One mole of Ammonia (NH3) = 17g

Mass of 6.023 x 1023
molecules of NH3 = 17g
Mass of one molecule of NH3 = .‫ڰ‬ x ‫ڰ‬
= 2.882x 10-23 g.
4. Calculate the number of atoms present in 64g of O2

One mole of Oxygen atom = 16 g
No of atoms in 16g of O2 = 6.023 x 1023
( .‫ ڰ‬x  ‫ ) ڰ‬x
No of atoms in 64gm of O2 = = 24.092 x 1023
1.What is the mass of a molecule of Cl2?

2.Calculate the mass of an atom of Na?
3. Calculate the number of atoms present in 76g of I2?
4.How many molecules are present in 62g H3PO4?
15

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Name _____________________________ Course & Yr. __________ Date _________ Score ____
.‫ڰ‬ Learning Exercises

PART- A
1. Calculate the molecular mass for the following:
a) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
b) Water (H2O )
c) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
d) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
2. How many moles are present in

a) 220 g of carbon-dioxide
b) 72 g of water
c) 196g of sulphuric acid
d) 3 moles of ammonia
e) 2.5 moles of sulphuric acid
f) 1.5 moles of carbon dioxide
3. How many molecules are present in the following?

a) 4g of nitrogen
b) 16g of oxygen
c) 32g of methane
4.What is the mass of the following

a) One molecule of CO2
b) One molecule of H2O
5. Which one is heavier in the following at STP?

a) 3 moles of H2O (OR) 1 mole of H2SO4
LE
16

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Name _____________________________ Course & Yr. __________ Date _________ Score _____
.‫ڰ‬ Self-Assessment Questions

PART- B
1. Define molecule.
2. Define molecular mass of a substance.
3. Define mole.
4. What is molecular formula?
5. Define Avogadro’s number.
6. State Avogadro’s hypothesis.
7. What are the applications of Avogadro’s hypothesis?

LE
17

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Section 1.3 : ACIDS AND BASES
Depending upon the ions produced in the solution, the substances are classified into acids and bases. The
acidic and basic nature of matter is more essential to study about the chemical reactions.
ACIDS
An acid is a substance that gives hydrogen ions (H+) by itself or in aqueous solution.
Example:
HCl H++ Cl −
HNO3 H+ + NO
CH3COOH CH3COO − + H+
BASES
A base is a substance that gives ions (OH-) by itself or in aqueous solution.
Example: NaOH Na++ OH−
KOH K+ + OH−
THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
By the following theories, the acidic and basic nature of substances can be easily explained
1. Arrhenius theory
2.Lowry-Bronsted theory
3.Lewis theory.
1. ARRHENIUS THEORY (1827)
According to this theory, an acid is a substance that gives hydrogen (H+) ions in water or in aqueous
solution.
H2 SO4 2H+ + SO42−
HCl H+ + Cl−
HCl gives H+ in water, hence it is called as acid.
A Base is a substance that gives hydroxyl ions in water or in aqueous solution

Na (OH) Na+ + OH−
Ca (OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH−
NaOH gives OH-- in water; hence, it is called as base.
Strength of an acid (or) base depends upon the extent to produce H+ (or) OH– during ionization.
LIMITATIONS
1. It is valid only in aqueous solution or water-soluble acid and bases.
2. It is difficult to explain the basic properties of non-hydroxyl compounds like NH3, Na2CO3.
18

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
2. LOWRY-BRONSTED THEORY (1923) (PROTONIC CONCEPT)
An Acid is a substance, which donates proton to any other substances. Hence, it is proton donor.
eg. HCl, H2SO4.
A Base is substance that accepts proton from any other substance. Hence, it is proton acceptor.
e.g. NH3
HCl H+ (Proton) + Cl−
NH3 + H+ NH4+
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl−
Acid base acid base
As shown in the example above , it is an acid in the sense that HCl gives proton to water. The HCl and Cl-
differ by only one proton. Hence they are called as conjugate acid-base pair.
NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH−
Base Acid base acid
Likewise, NH3 accepts proton from water, hence it is called base. The NH3 and H2O differ by only one
proton. Hence they are called as conjugate acid-base pair. The water behaves like an acid and a base.
Hence it is amphoteric in nature.
Drawbacks
1. It explains the acidic and basic characters of a substance only if a solvent like water is present.
2. It does not explain the neutralization of acidic oxides (CO2, SO2) by basic oxides (CaO, BaO) because
there are no H+ ions.
3. It cannot explain the acid –base reaction in fused state and vapour state.
3. LEWIS THEORY (1923)-(ELECTRONIC CONCEPT)
Lewis concept is known as electronic concept because it involves electron pair transfer during base
formation. According to this theory, an acid is substance that accepts a pair of electrons. So, acid is an
electron pair acceptor. A base is a substance that donates a pair of electrons. So, base is an electron pair
donor.
Example:1
Ammonia donates a pair of electron to Boron trifluride and is called as Lewis acid. Hence it is called as
electron pair donor. Boron trifluride accepts the electron pair from ammonia. Hence it is called as Lewis
acid.
Example:2
A Lewis base is an electron pair donor. This definition is more general than those we have seen to this
point; any Arrhenius acid or base and any Bronsted-Lowry acid or base can also be viewed as a Lewis acid
19

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
or base. The reaction of H1+ with OH1-, for instance, involves donation and acceptance of a proton, so it
is certainly legitimate to call it a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction. But if we look at the Lewis structures
for the reactants and products, we see that it is also legitimate to call this a Lewis acid-base reaction.
Here, OH- donates pair of electrons. So, it is a base.

H+ accepts a pair of electrons. So, it is an acid.
Example: 3
Lewis acid an acid is s substance that accepts a pair of electrons. So, acid is an electron pair acceptor.
+ e
Na+ Na
+ e
H+ H
Na ions is ready to accept an electron, hence it is called as Lewis acid.
+
Lewis base A base is a substance that donates a pair of electrons. So, base is an electron pair donor.
e
Example: Cl− - Cl
Here Cl− is ready to donate an electron, hence it is called as Lewis base.
ADVANTAGES
1. It explains the acid base reactions by way of electron transfer.
2. It gives an idea about the acidic character of substances that do not contain hydrogen. The acidic nature
of the following substances like BF3, FeCl3, and AlCl3 can be easily explained by this concept.
3. The neutralization of acidic oxides and basic oxides can also be easily explained by this concept.
CaO: + SO2 CaSO3
Acid Base
4. The concept can be easily understood.
CONCEPT OF pH AND pOH (S.P.L Sorenson)
PH is a convenient way of expressing acidity or the concentration of H+ in solution. It helps to avoid the use
of large of negative power of 10.
PH = - log10 [ H+] = t  +
[H+] = 10-PH
Higher the concentration of H+, lower will be the value of PH.
DEFINITION PH and POH

PH of a solution is defined as negative of logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]
PH = t 
[ H+]
Similarly, POH of a solution is defined as negative of logarithm to the base 10 of the hydroxyl ion
concentration [OH − ]
POH = t 
[OH−]
.
20

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
In a neutral aqueous solution

[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 gm ions/litre.
t  [H+] + t  [OH-] = log 10-14 = -14
-log [H+] +{- log [OH-]} = 14.
So,
PH + POH = 14
Sample Problem:
1. If PH of a solution is 5, what is its POH?
PH + POH = 14
5 + POH = 14
POH = 14 - 5
POH = 9
IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

The product of [H+] and [OH-] is known as ionic product of water. The value is 1 x 10-14. KW = [H+] x [OH−]
= 1 x 10-7 x 1 x 10-7 = 1 x 10-14 g ions/litre.
POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
1. For pure water, PH and POH values = 7
2. The sum of pH and POH should be equal to 14 .
PH + POH = 14
3. Ionic product of water is 1 x 10-14.
4. PH = < 7 Acid
PH = 7 Neutral
PH = > 7 Base
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the PH of a solution whose hydrogen ion concentration is 4.6 x 10-4 gm ions/litre.
PH = -log10 [H+]
= -log10 [4.6 x 10-4]
= - [log10 4.6] +[log1010-4]
= - [0.6627 - 4]
= - [-3.3373]
PH = 3.3373
2. Calculate the PH of 0.003M HCl solutions. The hydrogen ion concentration is 0.003
PH = - log10[H+]
= -log10 [1 x 10-3]
= -log10 [1] + log10 [10-3]
= - (0-3)
PH =3
21

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
3. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution whose PH is 4.45.

PH = 4.45
PH = - log10 [H+]
= 4.45 = - log10[H+]
log10 [H+] = - 4.45 = ( - 4 - 1) + (-0.45)
= - 5 + 0.55
[H+] = Antilog of 0.55 x 10-5
[H+] = 3.548 x 10-5 g ions/litre.
4. If the PH of a solution is 5.25, calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.
PH = 5.25
H
P = - log10 [H+]
5.25 = - log10[H+]
log[H+] = - 5.25 = (-6 + 0.75)
[ H+) = antilog (0.75) x 10-6
= 5.623 x 10-6 g ions/litre.
5. Calculate the PH of 0.1 m NaOH solution.

0.1 m NaOH means
= 0.1g ions/litre.
POH = - log10 [0H–]
= - log10 [0.1]
= - log10 [1 x 10-1]
= - [- 1] = 1.
PH + POH = 14
PH + 1 = 14
PH = 14 – 1
= 13
1.Calculate the pH of 0.2M KOH solution.

2.The pH of a solution is 6.2. Calculate the H+ and OH- ions.
Indicators an indicator is a substance, which has one colour in acid solution and a different
colour in alkaline solution. Indicator is a substance, which indicates the exact completion of a
chemical reaction by changing colour at the end point.
Example:
Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange, Methyl Red Indicators are used in titrations to determine the
end point. During the acid-base titration, if certain pH is reached, indicator changes its color.
22

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
Indicator Colour Change pH Range

Phenolphthalein Colorless to Pink 8 - 9.5
(Acid) (Base)
Methyl Orange Red to Yellow 4.5 – 6.5
(Acid) (Acid)
It is very clear from a study of the above table that phenolphthalein which becomes colorless
when pH = 8 will indicate that the solutions is acidic. Methyl orange shows a yellow alkali color
when pH = 4.5 will indicate the solution is acidic. Therefore selection of indicators is more
important for acid base titrations. It depends upon the nature of acid and the base involved in
that titration.
BUFFER SOLUTION Maintaining of pH is more important in many industries. For that buffer
solution is needed. Buffer solution is one which maintains a constant pH even when small amount
of acid or alkali are added to the solution.
Buffer solution is classified into two types.
1. Acidic buffer
2. Basic buffer
Acidic buffer is obtained by mixing a weak acid with a salt of the same weak acid.
Example:
CH3COOH + CH3COONa
Acetic acid sodium acetate
Basic buffer is obtained by mixing a weak base with a salt of the same weak base.
Example:
NH4OH + NH4Cl
Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium chloride.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF pH
PH is more important in many industries to get high yield and the quality. PH plays a vital role in
the following industries.
1. Textile Industry: In textile industry, the pH of dye has to be maintained otherwise dying will not
be uniform and permanent.
2. Sugar Industry: The PH of the sugarcane juice should be maintained between 8 and 9.
Otherwise crystallization of sugar will not be better.
3. Leather Industry: The PH of solution for Tanning purpose should be 2.5 to 3.5. If not, the hides
will putrify.
4. The PH of liquid chlorine is more effective in the PH range of 5 to 6.5 in water treatment.
5. The PH of the soil should be maintained for plants to grow and to get better yield.
6. The PH of human blood is 7.2. If not, it causes coagulation of blood which leads to death.
7. The PH of a gastric juice is 1.4 to 2. Otherwise it may cause vomiting and stomach disorder.
8. Here are the industries were PH plays a vital role: Paper industry, Alcohol industry, Medicine
and Chemical industry, Food production industry etc.
23

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
PART I
1. State the difference between pH and pOH
2. What do we mean by Buffer solution?
PART II
1. What is an Indicator? Give examples.
2. Distinguish between Arrhenius and Bronsted –Lowry theory of acid and base?
3. What is Lewis concept of acid and base?
24

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
PART-III
1. Explain the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases with examples.
2. Explain the Lewis concept of acids and bases with examples. Mention its advantages also.
3. Write a note on applications of PH in industries.
PART-IV
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. The hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is 2x10-4 g ions/litre. Calculate the pH of the solution.
2. The hydroxyl ion concentration of a solution is 1x10-9 g ion/litre. Calculate the PH of the solution.
3. The pH of a solution is 4.28.Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.
4. The pH of a solution is 11.5. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.
25

Chapter 2
ACIDS AND BASES
REFERENCES:
K.Mohan M.Sc., THIRU.K.SUBRAMANIAN., THIRU.S.MAHALINGAM., THIRU.I.SYED AHAMED
HUSSAIN., THIRU.K.HEMACHANDRAN. 2015. Engineering Chemistry. Distribution of Free Textbook
Programme, Government of Tamilnadu, 14th edition.
Brown, Lawrence S., Holme, Thomas A. (2007). Cengage Learning: CHEMISTRY for Engineering
Students. C & E Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9789814232456.
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Chapter 2

Chemistry for Engineers ATOMIC STRUCTURES, MOLECULAR MASS,

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

Section 1.1 : ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Fundamental particles of an atom

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

where; E represents the atomic symbol for the element in question,

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

MASS NUMBER (A)

The atom is consists of two parts;

1. The Central Nucleus:

shell or orbit or energy levels

no. of orbit shell or orbit or energy levels maximum no. of electrons

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

FORMATION OF CATION AND ANION

Example.1. Hydrogen atom

So, Atomic no. (Z)=1 , Mass no. (A)=1

Example.2. Sodium and Chlorine atom

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

CATION FORMATION is when an atom losses an electron it becomes cation.

Na (Atom) Na+ (cation).

ANION FORMATION is when an atom gains an electron, it becomes anion

ELECTRONIC CONCEPT OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

The electronic concept of oxidation and reduction can be explained as below.

OXIDATION is a process that involves removal (loss) of electrons.

REDUCTION is a process that involves addition (gain) of electrons.

What is chemical bonding?

Why do atoms combine?

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

INERT GASES OR NOBLE GASES

1. Ionic (or) Electrovalent Bond

Example: Formation of Sodium Chloride

Cl: The atomic number of chlorine is 17(17p/17e=17+/17- )

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

Check your understanding

Show the formation of BaBr2 and KF.

Example : Formation of Ammonia (NH3 ).

The atomic no of Nitrogen is 7. (E.C:2, 5 unstable).

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

The electronic configuration 1s2,2s2,2p3.

The atomic number of Hydrogen is 1.

Check your understanding

Show the formation of N2 and Br2

The Periodic Table

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

Periods and Groups

GROUPS OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODIC TABLE

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloid

Another way to classify an element is as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.

Engr. Charito V. Mollejon

2. What is the charge of the following:

5. Illustrate the formation of a cation and anion with example respectively.

6. Why do we call H+ion as a proton?

7. Explain why atoms of elements combine?

8. Show the formation of NaCl and NH3.

10. Which is more stable K or K+? Br or Br-? Why?