Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-022-01418-x

RESEARCH PAPER

Temperature and torque in FSSW of steel sheets: experimental

measurements and modelling
David Gomes Andrade1 · Sree Sabari2 · Ivan Galvão2,3 · Carlos Leitão2 · Dulce Maria Rodrigues1

Received: 16 September 2022 / Accepted: 14 November 2022 / Published online: 19 November 2022
© International Institute of Welding 2022, corrected publication 2022

Abstract
The torque and temperature evolutions with process parameters in friction stir spot welding (FSSW) of steels were determined
and modelled in this work. Four base materials, including two mild steels (DC01 and DC05) and two high-strength steels
(HC420 and DP600), were welded using tungsten carbide pinless tools. The relationship between the thermo-mechanical
conditions developed during welding and the process parameters was analysed by performing temperature and torque
measurements. Tool damage was assessed and related with the welding time. It was found that both the tool diameter and
the rotational speed have a strong influence on the torque and temperature in FSSW. Additionally, a maximum threshold
temperature of 1100 °C was registered for all the steels tested. It was also observed that, while for the lower strength steels,
the temperature evolves with the process parameters, for the higher-strength steels, the welding temperature remains close to
the threshold value, independent of the process parameters. This shows the important influence of the base material proper-
ties on the heat generation. Analytical models to predict the torque and temperature from FSSW process parameters were
developed, calibrated and validated using the experimental data.

Keywords Modelling · Friction stir spot welding · Steel · Temperature · Torque

1 Introduction welding. Due to the absence of accurate models of the FSW

In stir-based technologies, such as friction stir welding
(FSW) and friction stir spot welding (FSSW), both the heat
generation and the material flow are determined by the pro-
cess parameters, the tool geometry and the base material
properties, which, in turn, determine the thermo-mechanical
conditions developed during welding [1–4]. According to
Magalhães et al., 2018 [5], despite the large number of prac-
tical applications and research studies on FSW and FSSW,
there is still an important gap in which concerns to the knowl-
edge of the fundamental mechanisms taking place during
Recommended for publication by Commission III - Resistance
Welding, Solid State Welding, and Allied Joining Process
* Dulce Maria Rodrigues
dulce.rodrigues@dem.uc.pt
1
University of Coimbra, ISISE, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Coimbra, Portugal
2
University of Coimbra, CEMMPRE, Mechanical Engineering
Department, Coimbra, Portugal
3
ISEL, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal
and FSSW thermo-mechanisms, any new process develop-
ment is planned based on trial-and-error experiments.
The uncertainties relative to the thermo-mechanisms gov-
erning the friction stir-based processes include the characteri-
sation of the contact conditions, between the tool and the work-
piece, the understanding of the mechanisms governing the heat
generation and the characterisation of the material flow and the
way it is determined by the mechanical properties of the base
materials. As shown by Tello et al., 2010 [6] and Leitão et al.,
2012 [7], the analysis of this former aspect is especially com-
plex since information on the mechanical behaviour of metallic
materials at the temperatures and strain rates imposed by the
FSW and FSSW processes is almost inexistent in the literature.
According to Colligan and Mishra, 2008 [8], the lack of data
results from the difficulty to reproduce the complex loading
conditions imposed by the welding tool on the base materials,
using the current laboratory apparatus.
In addition to the above-described problems, Andrade
et al., 2020 [9] report that the analytical models available
in the literature for predicting the temperature and the
torque, which are process outputs related to the thermal and
mechanical energies, were developed for FSW, considering

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a very narrow range of process parameters, and most of
them lack experimental validation. Additionally, as shown
in Nandan et al., 2008 [10], most of the model formulations
are complex, requiring difficult-to-determine variables, such
as the contact conditions, the friction coefficient and/or the
base material properties, under the thermo-mechanical con-
ditions imposed by the FSW process.
Developing reliable and efficient models that enable the
torque and temperature to be determined based on process
parameters is still required. Such models would enable to
predict and control the welding temperature, which is use-
ful for avoiding the formation of defects due to inadequate
material flow, for optimising welds properties, such as
microstructure and strength, as well for limiting the heat
input in the structure, allowing to minimise residual stresses
and distortions. As stated by Fehrenbacher et al., 2011 [11],
Cederqvist et al., 2012 [12], Mishra et al., 2018 [13] and
Meng et al., 2021 [14], predicting the torque and tempera-
ture, according to the base material and process parameters,
is also useful for developing real-time process control strate-
gies, the main requirement of Industry 4.0.
Up to date, FSW and FSSW are widely used for welding
heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys. On
the other hand, although steels are the most widely used
materials for engineering applications, according to Çam,
2011 [15], Rai et al., 2011 [16] and Mohan and Wu, 2021
[17], due to its high melting temperature, the challenges
related to the tool design, wear and cost still limit the weld-
ing of these materials by FSW and FSSW. Therefore, most
models developed up to date have only been applied and
tested in aluminium alloys and not in steels. The tool pin
wear-related issues were overcome by Sun et al., 2012 [18],
Mira-Aguiar et al., 2016 [19] and Andrade et al., 2021 [20],
in lap welding, and by Kim et al., 2017 [21], in butt welding
of thin steel plates, by employing pinless tools, thus avoiding
the pin collapse. The manufacturing of pinless tools also has
the advantage of lowering the production costs, due to the
tool’s simpler geometry, and preventing the formation of the
keyhole and hook defect, which deteriorate the weld tensile
properties by acting as crack initiation and stress concentra-
tion factors, as shown by Babu et al., 2013 [22], Andrade
et al., 2018 [23] and Kang et al., 2020 [24]. Furthermore, as
shown by Choi et al. 2020 [25], Silva et al. 2021 [26] and
Ma et al. 2021 [27], pinless tools have also been successively
used for spot and lap welding between metal and carbon
fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP).
In the investigation performed under this work, a ther-
mal and mechanical analysis of the FSSW process in steels
was conducted. The thermal and mechanical analysis, which
aimed the understanding of the heat generation mechanisms
and the tool/workpiece interaction, respectively, were devel-
oped by registering the temperature and torque evolution
during the welding of DC01, DC05, HC420 and DP600 thin
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Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
steel plates, while using pinless tools with varying diameters
and rotational speeds. The study performed also allowed to
expand the previous analytical models, proposed by Andrade
et al., 2021 [28], for the FSSW of aluminium alloys, to the
FSSW of steels. The analytical models, which relate the
process parameters with the welding temperature and tool
torque, were successfully fitted to the very large range of
welding conditions tested in this work. Additionally, since
the principle of the FSW and FSSW processes is similar,
the results from the current paper may be extrapolated to the
plunging and dwelling phases of butt welding, which are the
most critical for the tool damage in FSW of steels.
2 Experimental procedure
To analyse the torque and the temperature evolutions with
the process parameters, spot welds were produced in four
different grades of steel, including two mild steels (DC01
and DC05), a high-strength steel (HC420) and a dual-phase
steel (DP600). The chemical composition, carbon content,
equivalent carbon and tensile strength of each base material
are compared in Fig. 1. As shown in the figure, the DC01
and DC05 steels had identical tensile strength, while having
different carbon content. These steels were properly selected
to enable the analysis of the influence of the carbon content
on the heat generation during welding. On the other hand,
the DP600 and HC420 steels were selected to display impor-
tant differences in strength and equivalent carbon content
relative to the DC01 and DC05 steels. The base materials
were machined to the dimensions of 80 × 80 × 1 mm for
welding.
To have a large comprehensiveness on the torque and
temperature evolution with process parameters, a process
parameter window, combining different tool diameters and
rotational speeds, was tested. Three flat tungsten carbide pin-
less tools with a diameter of 10, 12 and 16 mm and two dif-
ferent rotational speeds of 870 and 1500 rpm were selected
to produce the welds. Pinless tools were chosen in order to
enable producing welds under a varied range of welding
conditions, without pin collapse. For thin plates, by exclud-
ing the pin from the tool geometry, no important influence
on the temperature results was expected, relative to con-
ventional FSSW tools, since it was already established by
Nunes, 1998 [29] Mehta et al., 2011 [30], Rao et al. 2015
[31] and Andrade et al., 2019 [32] that the tool shoulder
has the prominent role on the heat generation during weld-
ing. Weld trials were performed using an FSW-dedicated
machine, in position control, with a constant plunge depth
of 0.5 mm, plunging time of 4 s and dwell time of 60 s. The
longer dwell period of 60 s was settled to enable attaining
steady-state conditions during welding. During welding,
no shielding gas was used. The torque evolution during the
Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352 343

Fig. 1  a Base materials’ chemical composition, equivalent carbon content and b tensile strength

plunging and dwelling phases of the FSSW was acquired,

using the torque sensor of the FSSW machine, with the
objective of assessing the response of the base materials to
the different tool diameters and rotational speeds. Likewise,
the thermal cycles were acquired using an infrared thermo-
graphic camera, following the practices proposed in Andrade
et al., 2019 [32]. The temperature at the outer interface
between the tool and the workpiece was established as the
maximum temperature registered by the camera. To calibrate
the thermographic camera, the tool was heated in a furnace
to temperatures in the same range of that experienced dur-
ing FSSW. In the furnace, the temperatures were measured
with thermocouples and compared with the temperatures
obtained with the thermographic camera by adjusting the
thermal emissivity until it reached the values shown by the
thermocouples.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Temperature and torque evolution

during welding

Figure 2a shows the evolution of temperature (solid lines)

and torque (dashed lines) with time for the welds produced
in the DP600 steel, with a constant rotational speed of
870 rpm and with a tool diameter of 10 mm (black lines)
and 16 mm (blue lines). Figure 2b represents the instanta-
neous derivative of temperature (dT/dt) and torque (dM/dt)
determined for the full welding cycle, i.e. the tool plunging
Fig. 2  Evolution of a temperature (solid lines) and torque (dashed
lines) with time and of the b instantaneous temperature and torque
derivative in order of time for the welds produced in the DP600 steel,
with a constant rotational speed of 870 rpm and with a tool diameter
of 10 mm (black lines) and 16 mm (blue lines)

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phase, the dwelling stage and the tool removal. The instan-
taneous derivative of temperature corresponds to the instan-
taneous heating rate, when it displays positive values, and
to the instantaneous cooling rate, when reaching negative
values. On the other hand, when the instantaneous derivative
of torque displays positive and negative values, it means that
the torque is increasing and decreasing over time, respec-
tively. Analysing the figure, it is possible to observe that
during the plunge of the tool at the beginning of the welding
process, the temperature and the torque rapidly increased
until the end of this welding stage. After the plunging of
the tool, at the beginning of the dwelling stage, the torque
started to decrease, while the temperature remained in an
almost constant value until the end of the process. Contrary
to this, the torque only reaches steady-state conditions after
around 25 s of welding, then it maintains constant values
until the tool removal.
Comparing now, the instantaneous derivative values of
temperature and torque, similar conclusions may be reached.
At the beginning of the welding process, it is possible to
observe that the instantaneous derivative of the temperature
and the torque are synchronised, reaching the peak value at
the same instant, approximately at the middle of the plung-
ing phase. After peak values are reached, the instantane-
ous derivative of temperature decreases to zero until the
Fig. 3  Evolution of a the tool diameter with the number of welds produced, b tool geometry before welding, c tool geometry after producing ten
welds and d tool diameter increase per minute of weld performed
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Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
beginning of the dwelling phase, remaining constant until
the end of the process, which shows that the welding reached
thermal equilibrium. Although a thermal equilibrium is
reached, the instantaneous derivative of the torque continues
to decrease up to negative values after the beginning of the
dwelling stage, due to the base material softening and heat
accumulation on the initially cold base material. After that,
the torque instantaneous derivative values tend to increase,
approaching null values and reaching fully steady-state
conditions, which shows that FSSW is a complex thermo-
mechanical problem, where the tool/workpiece mechanical
interaction and the heat generation mechanisms evolve dur-
ing the welding process. The temperature and the torque
evolution shown in Fig. 2 was similar for all the spot welds
produced, independent of the tool diameter, rotational speed
and steel tested.
In the next sections, the evolution of the stabilized tem-
perature (Tstz) and torque (Mstz) values, determined from the
thermal cycles and torque curves, with the rotational speed
and tool diameter for all the steels tested, is discussed. For
each testing condition, the Tstz and Mstz values were deter-
mined by calculating the average of the temperature and
torque values recorded during the steady-state period, i.e.
the period of time where the instantaneous derivative values
of temperature and torque are zero. Likewise, since in FSSW
Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
are usually used with very short processing cycle times, the
influence of the processing parameters on the maximum
torque (Mmax), reached during the tool plunging phase, will
also be analysed.
Additionally, as shown in Fig. 3, tool damage by plas-
tic deformation was observed during welding. In Fig. 3a,
the increase in the tool diameter with the number of
welds produced is compared for the welds produced with
the 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm diameter tools, under two
different rotational speeds of 870 and 1500 rpm. In Fig. 3
is also represented the tool geometry before welding
(Fig. 3b) and the tool geometry after producing ten welds
(Fig. 3c) for the 10 mm diameter tool. The images enable
to observe that the tools were not able to withstand the
very high compressive stresses experienced during weld-
ing, causing the tool to deform from its original shape
by mushrooming and, consequently, increasing its origi-
nal diameter. The tool wear mechanism was similar for
all tools tested, independently of its original diameter.
However, the tools with lower diameters were subjected
to more plastic deformation when compared to the tools
with larger diameters. After producing ten welds, the tool
diameter increased from 10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm to
12.5 mm, 13.5 mm and 16.4 mm, respectively. According
Fig. 4  Evolution Tstz with the
tool diameter and rotational
speed for the a DC01, b DC05,
c HC420 and d DP600 steels
345
to Fig. 3d, where the tools’ plastic deformation rate is
summarised, i.e. the increase in the tool diameter per
minute of weld, it is possible to conclude that the tool
diameter increased by 0.24 mm/min, 0.18 mm/min and
0.03 mm/min for the tools with an original diameter of
10 mm, 12 mm and 16 mm, respectively. The lower plas-
tic deformation rate observed for the tools with larger
dimensions is related to their larger cross section and
inferior stress levels. Whereby, instead of the standard
initial tool diameters mentioned in the experimental pro-
cedure, the tool diameters after-weld conditions were
used in the analysis of the results.
3.2 Thermal analysis
Figure 4 shows the evolution of the Tstz values with the
rotational speed and tool diameter for the different steels
tested. Analysing the figure, it is possible to conclude
that the evolution of Tstz with the process parameters var-
ies according to the alloy composition and mechanical
properties. While for the DC01, DC05 and HC420 steels,
the welding temperature increases with the tool diameter
and rotational speed, for the DP600 steel, a temperature
threshold was reached for all the welding conditions tested,
13
346
except for the weld produced with the lowest rotational
speed and smallest tool diameter of 870 rpm and 10 mm,
respectively. For the rotational speed of 870 rpm, increas-
ing the tool diameter from 10 to 16 mm led to an increase
in temperature of 170 °C, 141 °C, 140 °C and 86 °C for
the DC01, DC05, HC420 and DP600 steels. In comparison,
for a rotational speed of 1500 rpm, the same variation in
the tool diameter only leads to a variation in temperature
of 140 °C, 126 °C, 31 °C and 15 °C, respectively. Moreo-
ver, for the smallest tool diameter, increasing the rotational
speed from 870 to 1500 rpm led to an increase in tem-
perature of 91 °C, 126 °C, 95 °C and 62 °C for the DC01,
DC05, HC420 and DP600 steels, while for the largest tool
diameter, the same variation in the tool diameter leads to a
variation in temperature of 61 °C, 111 °C, 40 °C and 10 °C,
respectively. The results show that the influence of the tool
diameter on the temperature evolution is more significant
for low values of rotational speed, while on the other hand,
the influence of the rotational speed on the welding tem-
perature is more significant for small tool diameters.
The figure also enables to depict a temperature threshold
of 1100 °C, which is common to all the steels. However,
while for the DC01, DC05 and HC420 steels, the threshold
temperature of 1100 °C was only reached when welding at
Fig. 5  Evolution Mstz with the tool diameter and rotational speed for the a DC01, b DC05, c HC420 and d DP600 steels. e Comparison between
the Mstz values registered for all welding conditions tested in this work
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Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
the highest rotational speed of 1500 rpm and with the largest
tool diameter, for the DP600 steel, the temperature threshold
was reached for almost all the welding conditions tested.
Finally, it is also possible to conclude that the influence
of the processing parameters on the welding temperature
increases as the mechanical strength of the base material
decreases.
3.3 Mechanical analysis
To better understand the interaction between the tool and
the base material during welding, an analysis of the evolu-
tion of the tool torque with the processing parameters and
the steels tested in this work was conducted. In this way, the
Mstz evolution with the rotational speed and tool diameter
for the different steels is shown in Fig. 5a–d. The results
in the figure show that, independently of the steel being
welded, for a constant rotational speed, the torque increased
with the tool diameter, and for a constant tool diameter, the
torque decreased when increasing the rotational speed. For
the DC01, DC05 and HC420 steels, the decrease in torque
with the rotational speed may be attributed to the increase
in the heat generation and consequent base material sof-
tening. On the other hand, the increase in the torque with
Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
the tool dimensions has to be related to the increase in the
frictional contact area between the tool and the workpiece
and to the increase in the volume of material being stirred
at the tool-material interface. However, for the DP600 steel,
by relating the torque evolution in Fig. 5d with the thermal
analysis results shown in Fig. 4d, it is possible to conclude
that the torque is not directly related to the welding tempera-
ture. For instance, for the spot welds produced in the DP600
steel with the largest tool diameter, no variation in the tem-
perature with the rotational speed was registered, although,
according to Fig. 5d, for the same welding conditions, a
decrease in torque may be observed. These results suggest
that for the welding conditions for which a threshold in the
welding temperature is observed, the mechanical interaction
between the tool and the workpiece, and in this way, the heat
generation mechanism, have to be different for the different
rotational speeds.
Comparing now the results in Fig. 5e, where the evolution
of Mstz with the rotational speed and tool diameter for all
steels and welding conditions tested in this work is plotted,
it is possible to conclude that, contrary to what was observed
when analysing the temperature, the torque values were
similar for all base materials, independently of their chemi-
cal composition and mechanical properties. The figure also
Fig. 6  Evolution Mmax with the tool diameter and rotational speed for the a DC01, b DC05, c HC420 and d DP600 steels. e Comparison between
the Mmax values registered for all welding conditions tested in this work
347
shows that the influence of the rotational speed on torque is
more significant for larger than for smaller tool diameters,
and, on the other hand, the influence of the tool diameter on
the torque evolution is more significant for lower than for
higher rotational speeds.
Since very short processing cycle times are usually used
in FSSW, inferior to 10 s, it is also important to analyse
the influence of the processing parameters on the maxi-
mum torque registered during the tool plunging phase.
Figure 6a–d shows the evolution of Mmax values with the
rotational speed and the tool diameter for all steels tested.
Analysing the figure, it is possible to conclude that the evolu-
tion of the torque with the process parameters is equal to the
one already reported for Mstz, i.e. the tool torque decreases
with the increase of the rotational speed and decreases with
the decrease of the tool dimensions. Once again, comparing
the results in Fig. 6e, where the evolution of Mmax with the
rotational speed and tool diameter for all steels and weld-
ing conditions tested in this work is plotted, it is possible
to conclude that the evolution of the Mmax with the pro-
cessing parameters was very similar for the DC01, DC05,
HC420 and DP600 steels. The influence of the rotational
speed on torque was also found to be superior for larger tool
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348 Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352

diameters, while the influence of the tool diameter on torque coefficients proposed by Andrade et al., 2021 [28] for cal-
was superior for lower rotational speeds. culating the average torque (CM,SW) and temperature (CT,SW)
values are given, respectively, by equations
3.4 Modelling torque and temperature
G√
(2)
4
CM,SW = t
𝜔
The data from the experimental tests was used for calibrat-
ing an analytical model that relates the process param- and
eters with the torque and temperature registered during
welding for the different materials. Previously, Andrade G𝜔
CT,SW = √ , (3)
et al., 2021 [28] developed a model for predicting the evo- t
lution of the torque and temperature values during FSSW
where ω and t correspond to the tool rotation speed (rpm)
of aluminium alloys by considering different rotational
and to the base material thickness (mm), respectively.
speeds, tool dimensions and base material thicknesses. In
The Mstz values are plotted versus the CM,SW coefficient
that model, the tool dimensions were considered through
in Fig. 7. From the figure, it can be observed that, for all
a single parameter, the geometry parameter (G), which is
grades of steel, a strong linear relationship exists between
given by Eq. 1.
the Mstz and CM,SW. This relationship is described by Eq. 4
𝜋 𝜋 2
( )
G = D2P + 𝜋DP pl + Ds − D2p (1) Mstz = KM,SW CM,SW , (4)
4 4
where DP, pl and DS are the pin diameter (mm), pin length in which KM,SW is a constant. Fitting the experimental
(mm) and shoulder diameter (mm), respectively. The results in Fig. 7, it was determined that for the steels tested in

Fig. 7  Evolution of the Mstz val-

ues with the CM,SW coefficient

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Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
Fig. 8  Evolution of the Mmax
values with the CM,SW coef-
ficient
the current work, KM,SW is equal to 80. It is also interesting to
observe that, although the base materials tested have differ-
ent chemical compositions and mechanical strength at room
temperature (Fig. 1), the evolution of the Mstz with CM,SW was
similar for the different steels. It is also possible to conclude
that the proposed model is able to predict with accuracy the
Mstz results for the welding conditions covered in this work.
As illustrated in Fig. 8, the Mmax values were also plot-
ted versus the CM,SW coefficient. From the figure, it can be
observed that, although the torque coefficient was origi-
nally developed for predicting the average torque values
registered during welding, the model is also effective to
predict the Mmax values achieved in spot welding. In fact,
the figure shows that a strong linear relationship also exists
between the Mmax and the CM,SW coefficient
Mmax = KMmax,SW CM,SW , (5)
where KMmax,SW is also a constant. Fitting the experimental
results in Fig. 8, it was determined that KMmax,SW is equal to
349
180 for all the steels analysed in the current work. It is also
important to notice the accurate prediction of the experi-
mental results, for the very large range of welding condi-
tions and base materials tested, which proves that the torque
coefficient is reliable for predicting the evolution of the Mmax
values.
Figure 9 shows the evolution of the welding tempera-
ture for the DC01, DC05, HC420 and DP600 steels with
CT,SW. The figure clearly shows that the CT,SW coefficient
satisfactorily reproduces the evolution of the spot welding
temperature for the steels tested. However, the curve in
the figure is divided in two different correlation stages, i.e.
for lower and for higher values of the CT,SW coefficient. In
fact, while a power function fits well the evolution of tem-
perature for lower values of CT,SW coefficient, no changes
in temperature are noticed for C T,SW values higher than
150,000, which agrees well with the existence of a tem-
perature threshold of around 1100 °C (Fig. 4). This way,
the evolution of the temperature with the CT,SW coefficient
can be described by Eq. 6
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350
Fig. 9  Evolution of the Tstz val-
ues with the CT,SW coefficient
{ 𝜑
T = 𝜆T × K T,SW × CT,sw , forCT,SW < 150000
SW
(6)
T = 𝜆T × 1100 ◦ C, forCT,SW ≥ 150000
where the KT,SW and φSW are constants associated with the
base material properties that determine heat generation and
dissipation, and λT is a constant that takes into considera-
tion the influence of the different experimental techniques
used to measure the temperature, such as differences in the
position at which the temperature was measured and differ-
ences in the backing plate material, among others. Using
Eq. 6, it was determined that KT,SW is equal to 139, 106, 359
and 581, while φSW is equal to 0.17, 0.19, 0.09 and 0.05, for
the DC01, DC05, HC420 and DP600 steels, respectively.
Analysing the KT,SW and φSW coefficients values, it is pos-
sible to conclude that while KT,SW increases as the strength
of the steels increases, φSW decreases as the strength of the
steels increases, enabling to model the process parameter
independent temperature threshold depicted in Fig. 4, for
the highest strength steel.
To conclude, it is also possible to say that the accurate
prediction of the experimental results proves that the tem-
perature coefficient is reliable for predicting the evolution of
temperature for spot welding.
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Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
4 Conclusions
A thermal and mechanical analysis of the FSSW of steels,
which aimed to better understand the heat generation and the
tool/workpiece interaction mechanisms, was conducted in
this work. The following conclusions were reached:
• The evolution of the maximum and stabilized torque
values with the processing parameters was identical for
all the steels tested, independently of their mechanical
properties and/or chemical composition. It was found that
increasing the rotational speed promotes a decrease in
torque, while an increase in tool diameter promotes an
increase in torque.
• The base material properties influence the temperature
evolution. For lower-strength steels, such as the DC01
and DC05 steels, the temperature increases with the tool
diameter and rotational speed. On the other hand, for
higher-strength steels, such as the HC420 and DP600
steels, the welding temperature variation is less sensitive
to the rotational speed and tool diameter.
• Independent of the steel being welded, a maximum tem-
perature threshold of 1100 °C is reached for the highest
Welding in the World (2023) 67:341–352
tool rotational speed and tool diameter, which is always
below the solidus temperature of the base materials.
• The temperature and torque coefficients (CT,SW and
CM,SW) were able to predict the evolution of the welding
temperature, maximum and stabilized torque with the
tool dimensions and rotational speed. The torque model
constants (KM,SW and KMmax,SW) were similar for the dif-
ferent steels; however, the temperature model constants
(KT,SW and φSW) varied.
• During processing, the high compressive stresses applied
to the tool lead to plastic deformation and to an increase
of its diameter with the welding time. The plastic defor-
mation was more pronounced for the smaller-diameter
tools than for the larger diameters ones, due to the influ-
ence of the tool diameter on the pressure.
Funding This research is sponsored by FCT/MCTES through national
funds (PIDDAC) under the R&D Unit Institute for Sustainability
and Innovation in Structural Engineering (ISISE), under reference
UIDB/04029/2020; the Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials
and Processes (CEMMPRE), under reference UIDB/00285/2020; and
by the project Friction 4.0 (POCI-01–0145-FEDER-032089).
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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