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A Clustering Algorithm Based On Mobility Properties in
A Clustering Algorithm Based On Mobility Properties in
Research Article
A Clustering Algorithm Based on Mobility Properties in
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
Copyright © 2015 Y.-j. Oh and K.-w. Lee. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
We propose a context-awareness routing algorithm—the DDV- (Dynamic Direction Vector-) hop algorithm—in mobile ad hoc
networks. The existing algorithm in MANET has the limitations of the dynamic network topology and the absence of network
expandability of the mobility of nodes. The proposed algorithm performs cluster formation for the base station using the range of
direction and threshold of velocity. We calculate the exchange of the cluster head node probability using the direction and velocity
for maintaining cluster formation. The DDV-hop algorithm, a probabilistic routing protocol for such networks, is proposed and then
compared to the earlier presented algorithms through simulations. The simulations are conducted on a number of clusters, network
areas, transmission ranges, and velocity of nodes in mobile networks. Our results suggest that the DDV-hop algorithm demonstrates
efficiency of eventual delivery and maintains the proper number of clusters and cluster members regardless of topology changes
with a lower communication overhead in several interesting environments.
algorithm. This algorithm considers dynamic properties of where 𝑡 is current time and 𝑡0 is the time when hello message
nodes, such as velocity, direction, to form clusters. In order to was received. 𝑉𝑥 and 𝑉𝑦 refer to velocity. Then, the node
maintain clusters, the cluster head node finds cluster member calculates the probability of transmission considering the
nodes with similar velocity and direction. velocity and direction of the node and forwards the packet
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 [14].
describes relevant research related to the proposed algorithm. The lowest ID cluster algorithm (LIC) is an initial clus-
Section 3 provides a detailed description of the DDV-hop tering algorithm in MANET. This algorithm performs cluster
algorithm. This analyses the algorithm using network models formation using a unique ID of a node. To form a cluster, the
and optimization. The comparison of the performance of network chooses the cluster head node with the minimum ID.
the DDV-hop algorithm with that of the Lowest-ID and the The cluster head node chooses a cluster member node with
MOBIC algorithms is provided in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 the ID higher than its own. When a node is located within
shows the conclusions of the present paper. the transmission range of two or more cluster head nodes,
the node, called a gateway node, is used for routing between
2. Related Works clusters. However, since the node hears only the nodes with
IDs higher than that of the cluster head node, the network
In MANET, Yan Zhang and Jim Mee Ng proposed the consumes energy inefficiently and communication between
distributed group mobility adaptive (DGMA) clustering algo- the nodes is frequently disconnected [15].
rithm. In the DGMA, the node measures location informa- The Mobility Based Metric for Clustering (MOBIC)
tion of the node by GPS and calculates the variation of the algorithm proposes a local metric for cluster formation using
node location. Calculating variation of nodes is shown as speed properties in MANET. For cluster formation, network
measures the speed of a node using its coordinates and the
Δ𝑥𝑇𝑖 = (𝑥𝑡𝑖 − 𝑥𝑇𝑖 ) , interval time by hello message. The network chooses the
(1) cluster head node that has a low speed variance. After the
Δ𝑦𝑇𝑖 = (𝑦𝑡𝑖 − 𝑦𝑇𝑖 ) , cluster head node is selected, it joins a node as a cluster
where Δ𝑥𝑇𝑖 and Δ𝑦𝑇𝑖 are variations of the node location. 𝑡 is member node in a 2-hop area. However, since the MOBIC
the current time, 𝑇 is previous time, 𝑥𝑡𝑖 , 𝑦𝑡𝑖 , 𝑥𝑇𝑖 , 𝑦𝑇𝑖 are the algorithm elects the node with a low speed as the cluster
coordinates of the node 𝑖 at time 𝑡 and 𝑇 respectively. Using head node, the network topology frequently changes and the
the difference in the node locations, it is possible to form and communication between nodes is disconnected [16].
maintain the clustering networks from the node analyses of
velocity and direction [12]. 3. System Modeling and Methods
Similarly to the MANET environment, VANET (vehicu-
lar ad hoc network) has been reported to maintain routing In this paper, we propose the DDV-hop algorithm which per-
by frequently changing topology. MDBC (Moving Direction forms and maintains cluster formation taking into account
Based Greedy Routing Algorithm) uses the direction prop- mobility properties, such as direction and velocity. The
erty of several properties for routing. To set the direction existing clustering algorithm has the problem that the topol-
of the node that has mobility, if the current coordinate 𝑋 ogy gets frequently changed by node mobility. Therefore,
(𝑋-position) is bigger than the former coordinate 𝑋, the topology broadcasts change topology information, the net-
direction of the node is east. If the current coordinate 𝑋 is work load increases, and there is a lack of the network
smaller than the former coordinate 𝑋, then the direction of expandability. According to the mobility of a node, the
the node is west. If the current coordinate 𝑌 (𝑌-position) proposed algorithm forms clusters from the nodes with
is bigger than the former coordinate 𝑌, the direction of the similar direction and velocity. Due to this method of cluster
node is north. If the current coordinate 𝑌 is smaller than the formation, the topology change of the network is reduced,
former coordinate 𝑌, the direction of the node is south. When packet delivery ratio increases, and the load of the network
the direction of the node is set, the node broadcasts hello decreases. To form the initial cluster, the proposed algorithm
message and stores the location and direction of the neighbor sets a coverage as shown in
node in the table. To forward a packet to the destination
node, the node uses DREQ (Destination REQuest) and DREP 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑘 × 𝑅𝑇 , 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 𝑁, (3)
(Destination REPly) and finds a stable routing path [13].
Lili Hu proposed GPSR (Greedy Perimeter Stateless where 𝑅𝐶 is coverage, 𝑅𝑇 is transmission range, and 𝑘 refers to
Routing) considering the direction and velocity of a node the number of hops [17]. In this paper, we set the coverage that
in VANET. In the GPSR algorithm, the node sends hello confirms the information of the node by the number of hops
message that periodically includes velocity and direction, and the transmission range. To elect the initial cluster head
grasps current coordinates of neighbor nodes, and calculates node, the base station uses coverage using the following.
the current coordinates using velocity and direction. The First, the network elects the initial cluster head node by
current coordinates of the node are shown in coverage (see Figure 1).
In Figure 1, white circles mark cluster member nodes and
𝑋𝑡 = 𝑋0 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ∗ 𝑉𝑥 , black circles mark initial cluster head nodes. The black circle
(2) labelled “BS” refers to the base station and the broken-line
𝑌𝑡 = 𝑌0 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ∗ 𝑉𝑦 , circle means the coverage of the base station by the number
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 3
k=3
k=2
k=1
BS
BS
Figure 1: Selection of the initial cluster head node by coverage. receives the announcement message and selects the cluster
head node that is closest to it and has the same direction
and velocity. Then, the nodes send join message to select
the cluster head node. The cluster head node receives that
of hop. The network builds the base station located in the join message and registers those nodes as its cluster member
center of network. When the number of hops is 𝑘 = 𝑖, the base nodes. At this point, cluster formation is completed. Now,
station sets coverage. The base station confirms the direction the network has a routing structure that allows the cluster
of the node and measures the number of nodes in the range member nodes to send messages to the cluster head node and
of direction set by the base station in each region. In each the latter node to send a message to the base station. As each
region, the base station chooses the range of direction with node has mobility, the nodes get out of the cluster. In this case,
the highest number of nodes and elects a node with a similar the node is included into the region where it finally belongs.
direction to that of the initial cluster head node. In each For example, when a node belongs to region 𝐴, but has moved
region, the cluster head node cannot be elected by the base to region 𝐵, the node performs cluster formation again using
station, the base station increases the number of hops, and its direction and velocity. The cluster member node maintains
the procedure is repeated until the initial cluster head node is its routing path.
elected by the direction in each region [18]. According to the procedure of the cluster formation, the
relationship of friendship with the cluster head node is as
3.1. The DDV-Hop Algorithm Scenario. With regard to per- follows (see Figure 3).
forming cluster formation, the following two assumptions are As shown in Figure 3, nodes 𝑋 and 𝑌 are included into the
made in the paper. transmission range of the cluster head nodes 𝐴 and 𝐵. This is a
First, the base station is located in the center of the simple example showing an efficient clustering method which
network. selects the cluster head node. In the existing algorithm, a node
Second, the network area is divided into four regions by selects the cluster head node that is closest to it, regardless of
the base station. direction and velocity. However, in the DDV-hop algorithm,
Based on these assumptions, the network initializes the node compares its own direction and velocity with those
the network environment and the nodes randomly set the of the cluster head node and selects the cluster head node
location in the network. Next, the direction of the nodes with similar direction and velocity. For example, node 𝑋
is randomly set by the base station. Furthermore, the node is included by the cluster head nodes 𝐴 and 𝐵. Node 𝑋
arbitrarily establishes its properties, such as velocity. The compares the direction and velocity of its own with those of
energy of the node is initialized. both cluster head nodes and then selects the cluster head node
In Figure 2, the cluster head node is elected by coverage 𝐵, as this cluster head node has similar properties. Therefore,
and direction. In this paper, we assume that the number the load of the network is reduced and a stable topology is
of hops is 1. Thus, the base station confirms all nodes in maintained with a lower communication overhead in mobile
the network and elects the initial cluster head node in each ad hoc networks [19].
region. Afterwards, the cluster head node searches for other
nodes with similar properties. The nodes located on the 3.2. Network Models and Analysis of the DDV-Hop Algo-
boundary are included, based on their properties of direction rithm. In this paper, we propose the DDV-hop algorithm
and velocity, into the same region; furthermore, the nodes which performs and maintains cluster formation considering
form a cluster in that region. the properties of nodes such as direction and velocity.
When the cluster head node is elected, it sends an Specifically, the DDV-hop algorithm considers the following
announcement message to the nodes nearby. A normal node properties. A set of nodes defines 𝑁 in the network; each node
4 International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks
j ij
Dir
ij
Dirj
X
i
Diri
i
Diri
A B.S B
i j
j
Diri j Dirj
Figure 3: The procedure of join the cluster head node by the attributes (velocity, direction, location, energy, and transmission range).
has a unique ID. Furthermore, each node has direction (Dir𝑖 ) Step 1. For electing the initial cluster head node, the base
and velocity (V𝑖 ) (see (4)): station divides the network into four regions (see (6)):
network area
𝑁𝑖 = {Dir𝑖 , V𝑖 } , (4) (6)
= {Region𝑍 | Region𝑍 ∈ network area} ,
where Dir𝑖 is the direction of node 𝑖 and V𝑖 is the velocity of where Region𝑍 is the network area divided by the base
node 𝑖. The direction and velocity of each node are expressed station. When the network is divided by (6), the base station
in sets the range of direction. The range of direction is expressed
using rs, range of angle resolution. When rs is higher, then
Dir𝑖 = {0 ≤ Dir𝑖 < 2𝜋} , the number of cluster head nodes increases. The method of
(5) setting the range of direction is expressed in (7) and (8) as
V𝑖 = {0 ≤ V𝑖 < 𝑛} , follows:
rs = {0 < rs ≤ 𝑛} , (7)
where 𝑛 is a real number for setting the velocity of node 𝑖 and
node 𝑖 sets the velocity between 0 and 𝑛. { 𝛼𝜋 (𝛼 + 1) 𝜋 }
{ rs | [ , ]}
As the DDV-hop algorithm performs and maintains DirBS (𝑖) = { rs rs } , (8)
cluster formation by the direction and velocity of nodes, { }
{ 𝛼 = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2rs − 1}
the network can communicate for a long time. For the
communication of the network, the proposed algorithm is where DirBS (𝑖) refers to set of the range of the direction
divided into two major procedures, that of cluster formation by the base station. 𝑛 means a real number for setting the
and the other of exchanging the cluster head node (see rs. The base station sets the rs between 0 and 𝑛. In the set
Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 for further detail). range of direction by DirBS (𝑖), the number of the cluster head
nodes is determined. The cluster head node is elected by
the coverage and direction in each Region𝑍 ; the direction of
3.2.1. The Procedure of Cluster Formation. According to one node is included into the set range of direction. Equation (9)
of the assumptions specified above, the base station is located presents the method of electing a cluster head node:
in the center of the network area; the initial cluster is formed
according to the following procedure. CH = {𝑁𝑖 | 𝑁𝑖 ∈ Region𝑍 ∧ Dir𝑖 ∈ DirBS } . (9)
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 5
In (9), CH refers to the cluster head node group in the Step 1. The cluster member nodes in the cluster calculate the
network. After selecting the cluster head node using (7) and exchange probability (𝐸𝑗 (𝑡)) using the distance between the
(8), the cluster head node measures the similarity of direction nodes, the energy from transmitting data, and their average
for selecting cluster member nodes. residual energy. The method is shown in [20, 21]
{ (𝑓 (𝐸𝑗 (𝑡)) × 𝜔𝑗 (𝑡) × 𝑓 (DV (𝑡)) × 𝜔𝑗 (DV (𝑡)))max , 𝐶𝑗 (𝑡) = 0
𝑃𝑗 (DDV (𝑡)) = { (18)
{0, 𝐶𝑗 (𝑡) = 1,
6 International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks
CHID — — — —
13 24 13 24
1 2 1 2
15 22 Dir4 ≤ DirBS (𝛼) Dir5 ≤ DirBS (𝛼)
22
15
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10
21 21
16 11 12 16 Dir8 ≤ DirBS (𝛼)
11
Dir9 ≤ DirBS (𝛼)
12
18 19 18 19
B.S B.S
(a) Dividing the network area by the base station (b) Selection of the cluster head node by direction and velocity
Dir4,13 ≤ Dir4rs
4,13 ≤ Δ4
13 Dir4,1 ≤ Dir4rs24 13 24
Dir4,15 ≤ Dir4rs 4,1 ≤ Δ4
4,15 ≤ Δ4
1 2 1 2
22 15 22
15
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
4
Dir4,3 ≤ Dir rs
4,3 ≤ Δ4
7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10
21 21
16 16
11 12 11 12
18 19 18 19
B.S B.S
(c) Selection of the cluster member node by direction and velocity of the (d) Cluster formation network
cluster head node
shows the final result of cluster formation. Pseudocode 1 the remaining normal nodes are similar to the cluster head
shows the pseudocode of cluster formation. node in velocity and direction, the normal node is registered
As shown in Pseudocode 1, 𝑁[𝑖] is the node that is as a cluster member node and is stored in CM𝑖 .
located in the network. 𝑖 refers to the initial cluster head.
For the initial cluster formation, the network depends on the 3.3.2. Maintaining Cluster Formation Modeling. The cluster
threshold of direction (DirBS (𝑖)) in (8) and to the threshold of head node is exchanged to enhance the efficiency of energy
velocity (𝜎V𝑖 ) in (12). The node is selected including the cluster consumption and to ensure continuous communication. For
head node when a node is compared to the threshold of the exchange of the cluster head node, the cluster member
direction and refers to the threshold of velocity. The election nodes calculate the exchange probability and send the respec-
of the node is registered as role CH and cluster member node tive message to their cluster head node. When a cluster head
groups. The selected cluster head node compares its velocity node receives this message, it stores the exchange probability
and direction to those of other nodes in each region. When in the cluster head node table (see Table 4).
8 International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks
CMID 1 3 13 15
P(DDV(t)) 0.87 0.92 0.54 0.49
𝑃(DDV(𝑡)) 0.87 0.92 0.54 0.49
Cut point
CMID 1 4 13 15
In the cluster head node table, the cluster head node com-
pares the probabilities of exchange; furthermore, the cluster
member node with the maximum probability of exchange P(DDV(t)) 0.87 0 0.54 0.49
becomes the next cluster head node. Then, for efficient
energy consumption and continuous communication, the Figure 6: The procedure of updating cluster information.
preceding cluster head node has “0” probability of exchange.
The preceding cluster head node also sends the cluster
information message making the cut point that permutates
a cluster member node into the maximum 𝑃(DDV(𝑡)) as a exchange CHID[𝑖]into maximum 𝑃(DDV(𝑡))node as shown
cluster head node in (18). The procedure of editing cluster in the region table (see Figure 7).
information is as shown in Figure 6. As shown in Figure 7, the base station receives the
The next permutation is that the cluster head node message that there is a cluster head node exchange and
receives cluster information and sends message that the changes the cluster head node information in the region table.
cluster head node is exchanged. When the base station The procedure of the exchange of the cluster head node is
receives the message making cut point.And the head node shown in Figure 8.
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 9
13 24 13 24
0.54 0.54
1 2 1 2
0.87 22 0.87 22
15 15
0.49 0.49
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
0.92 0 0
0.92
7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10
21 21
16 11 12 16 11 12
18 19 18 19
B.S B.S
(a) Calculating exchange probability (b) Exchange of the cluster head node by the exchange probability
13 24
1 2
22
15
3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10
21
16 12
11
18 19
B.S
Figure 8: The procedure of the exchange of the cluster head node in the network.
20% packet delivery ratio. Therefore, the network area has ratio that has decreased from 91% to 61% when the number
increased and the packet delivery ratio of the DDV-hop algo- of clusters is 16. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 13, the
rithm has decreased and maintains a higher packet delivery DDV-hop algorithm shows the packet delivery ratio that has
ratio than those of other cluster algorithms. These simulation decreased from 90% to 62% when the number of clusters is
results suggest that the DDV-hop algorithm shows a more 24. Finally, the DDV-hop algorithm shows the packet delivery
continuous connection as compared to other algorithms. ratio that has decreased from 88% to 63% when the number
of clusters is 32 (see Figure 14). The LIC algorithm shows
4.2. Network Area. In this section, we proceed to the test to the packet delivery ratio that has decreased from 18% to 6%
see the packet delivery ratio according to the network area. when the network area is increased. The MOBIC algorithm
The network area is increased from 1000 × 1000 m2 to 2000 × also shows the packet delivery ratio that has decreased from
2000 m2 . The velocity of node is 1∼16 m/s, transmission range 33% to 13% when the network area is increased. In these
is 450 m, and the number of clusters is 16 to 32 (see Figures simulation results, the packet delivery ratio of the DDV-
12–14). hop, the LIC, and the MOBIC algorithms is decreased when
As shown in Figure 12, despite the increase of the network the network area is increased without a reference to the
area, the DDV-hop algorithm shows the packet delivery number of clusters. However, the DDV-hop algorithm shows
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 11
the packet delivery ratio that is higher than that in the LIC packet delivery ratio that has increased from 54% to 81%
and MOBIC algorithms. when the network area is 2000 × 2000 m2 . According to the
increase of transmission range, the LIC algorithm maintains
4.3. Transmission Range. Furthermore, we simulated the the packet delivery ratio that is 2% to 20% without a reference
packet delivery ratio by transmission range. In general, when to the network area. Furthermore, the MOBIC algorithm
transmission range increases, the cluster head node can join is shown in the packet delivery ratio that is 25% to 35%
more cluster member nodes. Thus, we set transmission range when the network area is 1000 × 1000 m2 . However, the
from 400 m to 600 m. The network area was increased from network area is increased and the packet delivery ratio of
1000 × 1000 m2 , 1500 × 1500 m2 and 2000 × 2000 m2 , the the MOBIC algorithm is decreased by 5%. These simulation
number of clusters was set at 16, and the velocity was 1∼16. results suggest that, according to the increased transmission
The simulation results are shown in Figures 15–17. range, the proposed algorithm offers a more continuous
As shown in Figure 15, when the transmission range is connection as compared to other algorithms.
increased, the proposed algorithm shows the packet delivery
ratio that has increased from 81% to 96% when the network
area is 1000 × 1000 m2 . Figure 16 illustrates that the DDV- 4.4. Velocity of Nodes. Furthermore, we simulated the packet
hop algorithm shows the packet delivery ratio that has delivery ratio by velocity of a node. The max velocity of a node
increased from 70% to 92% when the network area is 1500 was set at 8 m/s to 24 m/s. The network area was increased
× 1500 m2 . In Figure 17, the DDV-hop algorithm shows the from 1000 × 1000 m2 , 1500 × 1500 m2 and 2000 × 2000 m2 ,
12 International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks
1.0 1.0
0.8
0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 16 20 24 28 32 0 16 20 24 28 32
Number of clusters (EA) Number of clusters (EA)
Figure 9: The packet delivery ratio by the number of clusters and Figure 11: The packet delivery ratio by the number of clusters and
1000 × 1000 m2 . 2000 × 2000 m2 .
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0
1000 × 1000
1200 × 1200
1500 × 1500
1800 × 1800
2000 × 2000
0 16 20 24 28 32
Number of clusters (EA)
Figure 10: The packet delivery ratio by the number of clusters and DDV algorithm MOBIC algorithm
1500 × 1500 m2 . LIC algorithm
Figure 12: The packet delivery ratio by the network area and number
of clusters (16).
the number of clusters was set at 16, and transmission was
450 m. Simulation results are shown in Figures 18–20.
As shown in Figure 18, due to the increase the maximum network area is 1000 × 1000 m2 . The network area is increased
velocity of a node, the cluster was broken frequently. So the and the packet delivery ratio of the MOBIC algorithm is
packet delivery ratio of compared algorithm is lower than decreased by 7%. The LIC algorithm maintains the packet
the proposed algorithm. The proposed algorithm maintains delivery ratio of about 3% to 29% without a reference to the
the packet delivery ratio higher than compared algorithm, network area. These simulation results suggest that, according
because this algorithm performs the cluster by the velocity to the increased velocity and network area, the proposed
and the direction. In Figure 19, the DDV-hop algorithm algorithm offers a more continuous connection as compared
shows the packet delivery ratio that has decreased from 79% to other algorithms.
to 74% when the network area is 1500 × 1500 m2 . In Figure 20,
the DDV-hop algorithm shows the packet delivery ratio that 5. Conclusions
has decreased from 65% to 59% when the network area is
2000 × 2000 m2 . The packet delivery ratio of the MOBIC MANET consists of nodes that have mobility properties such
algorithm has remained stable (from 30% to 33%) when the as direction and velocity. Due to the characteristics of a node,
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 13
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 400 450 500 550 600
0
1000 × 1000
1200 × 1200
1500 × 1500
1800 × 1800
2000 × 2000
Transmit range (m)
DDV algorithm MOBIC algorithm Figure 15: The packet delivery ratio by transmission range and 1000
LIC algorithm × 1000 m2 .
Figure 13: The packet delivery ratio by the network area and the
number of clusters (24). 1.0
1.0 0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.8 0.6
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.6 0.4
0.4 0.2
0.2 0.0
0 400 450 500 550 600
Transmit range (m)
0.0
0
1000 × 1000
1200 × 1200
1500 × 1500
1800 × 1800
2000 × 2000
Figure 16: The packet delivery ratio by transmission range and 1500
Network area (m ) 2 × 1500 m2 .
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 400 450 500 550 600 0 8 12 16 20 24
Transmit range (m) Velocity of node (m/s)
Figure 17: The packet delivery ratio of transmission range and 2000 Figure 19: The packet delivery ratio max velocity and 1500 ×
× 2000 m2 . 1500 m2 .
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
Packet delivery ratio (PDR)
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 8 12 16 20 24 0 8 12 16 20 24
Velocity of node (m/s) Velocity of node (m/s)
Figure 18: The packet delivery ratio by max velocity and 1000 × Figure 20: The packet delivery ratio by max velocity and 2000 ×
1000 m2 . 2000 m2 .
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