Properties of Bulk Matter Final HSC - 6

Mechanical Properties of Solids
Elasticity
The property of the body to regain its original configuration when a deforming
force removed on it is called elasticity.
 Deforming force: When a force applied on a body and its configuration changes is
called deforming force.
Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit areas of a cross-section of the deformed
body is called stress.
⁄
→
S.I unit of stress is Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa).
Types of Stress
a) Tensile Stress: If there is an increase in the length or extension of the body in the
direction of force applied, the stress set up is called tensile stress.
b) Compressional Stress: It is the restoring force set up per unit cross-sectional area
of a body when its length decreases under a deforming force.
1
c) Hydraulic stress: when a solid body undergoes change in volume without any
change in its geometrical shape on applying the force perpendicular to every point on
the surface of the body.
d) Tangential or shearing stress: When a deforming force acts tangentially to the

surface of the body. It produces a change the shape of the body.
Strain
The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain.
= ( )
Types of Strain
a) Longitudinal Strain: It is the ratio of change in length to the original length.
∆
=
b) Volumetric strain: It is the ratio of change in volume per unit original volume.
∆
=
c) Shearing strain: It is defined as the angle ‘θ’ through which a face originally
perpendicular to the fixed face gets turned on applying tangential deforming force.
∆
, =
2
Elastic Limit
The maxm stress within which the bodies regain its original size and shape
after the remove of deforming force is called elastic limit.
Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that the extension produce in a wire is directly proportional to
the load applied.
Within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain.
Stress ∝ Strain
Stress = ∈ Strain
So, = ∈=
S.I unit of ∈ = =[ ].
Types of Modulus of Elasticity

a) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (γ):
It is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to the longitudinal strain.
( )
=
= × . ( ).
∆
b) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B):

It is the ratio of hydraulic stress to the volumetric strain.
= = − ×
∆
. ( ).
 Bulk modulus of elasticity for solids are much larger than bulk modulii for liquids
and much larger than bulk modulli for gases.
3
 Young’s modulus and Bulk modulus for a perfectly rigid body is infinity.
c) Modulus of Rigidity or shear modulus (η):

It is the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain.
= = = ×
∆
. ( )
 Shear modulus is involved with solids only.

 For most of the solid materials the value of shear modulus is one third of the young’s
modulus
. . = .
Solved Examples
1. A structural steel rod has a radius of 10mm and length of 1m. A 100kN force
stretches it along its length. Calculate (a) the stress (b) the elongations and (c)
percentage strain in the rod. Young’s modulus of elasticity of the structured steel
is 2×1011 Nm-2.
F 10
: −( ) Stress = = = . × .
A 22 × (10 )
7
F 3.18 × 10
( )The elongation ∆ = × = × 1.
A γ 2 × 10
3.2
∴∆ = × 10 = . × .
2
∆ × 100 1.6 × 10
( ) Percentage strain in rod = = × 100
1
∴ % strain = . %.
2. Two wires A and B of length l, radius r and length 2l and 2r having same young’s
modulus γ are hung with a weight mg. what is the net elongation in the two
wires?
4
F
:− ∆ = ×
A γ
mg
for wire A, ∆ = − − − −(1)
γπr
mg2 mg
for wire B, ∆ = = − − − −(2)
γ π (2r) 2γ π r
Total elongation = ∆ + ∆
mg mg
+ =
γπr 2γπr
3. A copper wire of length 2.2m and a steel wire of length 1.6m, both of diameter
3mm are connected end to end. When stretched by a load the net elongation is
found to be 0.70mm. Obtain the load applied. Young’s modulus of copper is
1.1× 1011 Nm-2 and young’s modulus of steel is 2.0×1011 Nm-2.
Ans:- Stress acting both of the same wire,
F ∆ ∆
So, = γ × = γ ×
A
∆ γ 2.2 2 × 10
= × = × = 2.5
∆ γ 1.1 1.1 × 10
∴ ∆ = 2.5 ∆ − − − −(1)
and from equation,
∆ + ∆ = 0.70
or, 2.5 ∆ + ∆ = 0.70
∴ ∆ = 0.2mm.
And ∆ = 2.5 × ∆ = 2.5 × 0.2 × 10 = 5 × 10 m
∆
So F = A γ
22 5 × 10
= × (1.5 × 10 ) × 1.1 × 10 ×
7 2.2
5
22
= × 1.5 × 1.5 × 10 × 1 × 10 × 5 × 10
7 22
1.5 × 1.5 × 5 × 10
= = . × .
7
4. The average depth of Indian Ocean is about 3000m. Calculate the fractional
∆
compression of water at the bottom of the ocean. Bulk modulus of water is
2.2× . = . / .
∆V P ρ gh
:− = =
V B 2.2 × 10
10 × 9.8 × 3000 3 × 10
= =
2.2 × 10 2.2 × 10
∆V
∴ = . × .
V
5. A square lead slab of side 50cm and thickness 10cm is subjected to a sharing
force (on its narrow face) of magnitude 9×104 N. the lower edge is riveted to the
floor as shown in fig. how much is the upper edge displaced. If the shear modulus
of lead is 5.6×109 Pa?
Ans:- area = 50×10 = 500cm2.
= 5× 10-4 m2.
F ∆
Then, η= ×
A
F 9 × 10 × 50 × 10
So, ∆ = × =
A η 5 × 10 × 5.6 × 10
∆ = . × .
6. Which is more elastic rubber or steel? Explain.

Ans:- Let γr and γs be the young’s modulus of rubber steel respectively. When a
stretching force is applied same on rubber and steel then change in length
(∆ ) is more than steel (∆ )
So, ∆ > ∆
6
F F ∆
γ = and =γ
A ∆ A
F F ∆
γ = and =γ .
A ∆l A
∆ ∆l
Then, γ =γ [∵ = ]
γ ∆
=
γ ∆
∵ ∆ > ∆ ∴ γ > γ.
Therefore steel is more elastic than rubber.
7. The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus. Explain.
Ans:- The stretching of a coil simply change its shape without any change in the length
of the wire used in coil. Due to which shear modulus of elasticity is involved.
8. What is the density of ocean water at a depth, where the pressure is 80 atm.
Given that its density at the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg/m3? Compressibility of water
= 45.8 × 10-11 Pa-1. Given 1atm = 1× 105 Pa.
Ans:- Compressibility of water 1/ B = 45.8 × 10-11 Pa-1 let ρ be the density of the water
at depth ‘d’. If V and V’ are volumes of certain mass M of ocean water at surface and at
depth d.
M M
V= and V =
ρ ρ
1 1
∴ Change in volume, ∆V = V − V = M −
ρ ρ′
1 1
∆V M −
ρ ρ′
∴ volumetric strain =
V M
ρ
∆V 1 1 ρ 1 × 10
or, =ρ − = 1− = 1− − −(1)
V ρ ρ ρ ρ
PV ∆V P
and B= or, = = 80 × 1 × 10 × 45.8 × 10
∆V V B
7
∆V
So, = 80 × 10 × 4.58 = 8 × 4.6 × 10
V
∆V
∴ = 3.7 × 10
V
Putting this value in eq(1)
∆V 1 × 10
= 1−
V ρ
×
3.7 × 10 = 1−
1 × 10
and ρ = = . × /
1 − 3.7 × 10
Stress- Strain curve for a metallic Wire
a) OA → Straight line obeys Hook’s & law.
b) AB → It is not a straight line it means it does not obey Hooke’s law. So, the OB
line is called elastic region and the point B is called elastic limit or yield point.
c) BC → beyond the point B, the strain increases more rapidly than stress. if the load
is removed then the wire does not come back to its original length. So, this point is
called permanent set.
8
d) OD → Beyond the point C there is large increase in the strain or the length of the
wire. So, point D is called the breaking point.
Classification of Material on the Basis of Stress- Strain Curve.
a) Brittle materials
The materials which have very small range of plastic extension are called
brittle materials.
b) Elastomers
There are those materials for which stress and strain variation is not
straight line with in elastic limit.
c) Ductile Materials
The materials which have large plastic range of extension are called
ductile materials.
Poisson’s Ratio
− ∆R
Lateral Strain R
Possion s Ratio σ = =
Longitudinal Strain ∆
Solved Examples
1. The stress – versus strain graph for two materials A and B are shown in fig. the
graphs on the small scale.
a) Which material has greater young’s modulus?
b) Which of the two is stronger material?
Ans:- (a) from the two graphs stress for A is more

than that of B, hence young’s modulus is greater for
A than that of B.
(b) Strength of material is measured by the amount of stress required to cause break. So,
A is stronger material than that of B.
2. Fig. shows the stress-Strain curve for a given material what are a) young’s
modulus and b) approximate yield strength for this material.
9
Ans:- (a) From Graph:
Stress
Young s modulus γ =
Strain
150 × 10
γ= = 7.5 × 10 Nm
0.002
(b) From Graph:

Yield strength = 300× 10 Nm .
Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Hydrostatics
A fluid is a substance that can flow, both liquid and gases are fluids.
Thrust of liquid
The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called
thrust.
S.I unit is Newton (N)
Liquid in Equilibrium
If an object is submerged in a liquid at rest the liquid exerts a force on the
surface of object in contact with liquid, which is always normal to the surface of object.
The normal (N) has two rectangular component F cos θ and F sin θ. Since the
liquid is at rest the force along OA (F cos θ) must be zero.
So, F cos θ = 0
F ≠ 0 ∴ θ = 90°.
Hence, a liquid always exerts a force perpendicular to the surface of the container at
every point.
10
Pressure
The pressure of a liquid at a point on a surface is the thrust acting normally
per unit area around at that point.
( )= . ( ).
It is a scalar quantity.
Some Applications of Pressure

 It is difficult for a man to walk on a sand while a camel walks easily on sand because
camel’s feet have a larger area than the feet of a man. So, pressure ∝ . So, less
pressure exerted by camel.
 Railway tracks are laid on wooden sleepers, this spreads force due to the weight of the
train. This reduces the pressure on ground which would prevent the yielding of
ground.
 A sharp knife cuts better than a blunt one because the area of the sharp edge is much
less than the area of the blunt edge. So, pressure is more for the sharp edge than the
blunt edge.
Density
The density of any material is defined as the mass per unit volume.
, = .
It is a scalar quantity and its S.I unit is kg/m3.
Specific Gravity or Relative Density

The specific gravity or relative density of a substance is defined as the
ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water at 4°C.
 The density of water is at 4°c is 1× 103kg/m3.

 As liquids are incompressible, their density remains constant at all pressures.
Specific gravity or relative density =

°
11
Variation of liquid pressure with depth
Consider a liquid of density ‘ρ contained in a vessel in equilibrium of rest.
Let a cylindrical element of the liquid of cross-sectional Area A and height ‘h’ and P1 P2
be the pressures at point X and Y respectively.
Force F1 due to the liquid pressure at the top.
x
F1 = P1 A acting downward and force F 2 due to the liquid
pressure at the bottom,
F2 = P2 A acting upward
As the liquid is in equilibrium,
Y
So, F1 + w = F2 [∵ weight w = mg]
F2 – F1 = w = mg
And P2 A – P1 A = V ρ g [∵ mass = volume × density]
A (P2 - P1) = A h ρ g
∴ − =
 If the top point ‘X’ of the cylinder shifted to the top of the liquid then atmospheric
pressure exerted on its. Then,
− =
So,
= + [ → ]
 If the cylinder at the same level i.e. there is no difference of height so, pressure
exerted same at all points.
 The excess pressure ( P − P = ρ gh) at depth ‘h’ is called a gauge pressure at

that point.
 Pressure does not depend on the cross-section or base area or the shape of the vessel.
 The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

1atm= 1.013 ×105 Nm-2 or Pa and various units of pressure,
0.76m of mercury column.
1 torr = one mm of mercury column.
And 1 bar = 105 Pa.
12
Pascal’s Law
It states that if gravity effect is neglected, the pressure at every point of liquid in
equilibrium of rest is same. and,
The pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally in
all direction.
Consider a small element ABCDEF in the shape of prism is fully immersed in the
liquid at rest.
Let,
A , A and A be the areas of their respective
faces and F , F and F be the forces exerted on
cosθ
these faces respectively.
From Newton’s Law
F sin θ = F −−−−−( )
F cos θ = F −−−−−( )
and similarly from geometery,
∵ Faces, ADEB = A
A sin θ = A − − − −(3)
BCEF = A and ACDF = A
A cos θ = A − − − −(4)
Dividing (1) by (3) and (2) by (4)
F sin θ F F cos θ F
= and =
A sin θ A A cos θ A
F F F
So, = =
A A A
∴ = =
Hence, pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest.
Applications of Pascal’s Law

a) Hydraulic lift (b) Hydraulic brakes
Hydraulic lift
It consists of two cylinders A and B of different areas of cross-sections a and A
respectively. They are connected to each other with a pipe and fitted with water-tight
frictionless pistons.
Let ‘f’ force applied on piston A and it will exert pressure
13
P = − − − −(1)
According to Pascal’s law
P = P
F F F A
= , =
a A f a
∵ A≫ a
∴F≫f
This shows that small force applied on area ‘a’ and very large force exert on
area ‘A’ as a result of it a heavy load on the larger piston is easily lifted upwards.
Hydraulic Brakes
Principle: → The working of Hydraulic brakes is based on Pascal’s law.
Construction: → It consists of master cylinder A filled with brake oil and provided with
air tight friction less piston P and it is attached with brake pedal through a lever system.
The wheel cylinder is heaving two pistons P1 and P2 and these are connected to brakes
shoes S1 and S2.
Working:→ When the pedal is pressed its lever system pushes the piston P into the
master cylinder. There will be increased pressure on liquid at P. which is transmitted
equally P1 and P2 move outwards and it get pressed against the inner rim of the wheel,
retarding the motion of the wheel.
When the paddle is released, a spring pulls the shoe away from the rim.
14
Solved Examples
1. The two thigh bones (femurs) each of cross-sectional area 10cm2 support the
upper part of a human body of mass 40kg. Estimate the average pressure
sustains by the femurs.
Ans:- F = 40kg – wt = 40× 10 = 400N.
F 400
Average pressure P = = = 2 × 10 Nm .
A 2 × 10
2.At a depth of 1000m in an ocean.

a)What is the absolute pressure?
b)What is the gauge pressure?
c)Find the force acting on the window of area 20cm ×20 cm of a submarine at this
depth? The density of sea water is 1.03×103 kg m-3 and atmospheric pressure =
1.01× 105 Pa.
Ans:- (a) Absolute pressure P i = Pa + ϱ gh = 1 × 10 + 1 × 10 × 10 ×
= 101 × 10 Pa.
(b) Gauge pressure P = Pi - Pa + ϱ gh = 1.03 × 10 × 10 × 1000

= 103 × 10 Pa.
(b) Force on the window = Gauge pressure × Area

= 103 × 10 × 0.04 = 4.12 × 10 N.
3. In a car lift, compressed air exert a force F1 on a small piston having a radius of
5cm. this pressure is transmitted to a second piston of radius 10cm. if the mass of
the car to be lifted is 1350kg. Calculate F1. What is the pressure necessary to
accomplish this task? (g= 9.8m/s2).
F F a πr r
:− = , F = ×F = ×F = ×F
a a a πr r
(5 × 10 )
So, F = × 1350 × 9.8 = 1470N.
(10 × 10 )
1470
Pressure, P = = 1.9 × 10 Pa.
22
× (5 × 10 )
7
4. Two syringes of different cross-sections (without needles) filled with water and
connected with a tightly fitted rubber tube filled with water. Diameter of the
smaller piston and larger piston are 1cm and 3cm respectively.
a) Find the force on the larger piston when a force of 10N is applied to the smaller
piston.
15
b) The smaller piston is pushed in through 6cm, how much does the larger piston
move out?
d
a F ×π
:− ( ) F = F × = 2 =F ×d
a d d
π
2
3
∴ F = 10 × = 90 .
1
( ) According to work energy principle.
F × l = F ×l
F l F 10 6
= , l = × l = × ∴ l = 6.7 × 10 m.
F l F 90 100
5. A U tube contains water and methylated spirit. Separated by mercury. The

mercury column in the two arms are in level with10cm of water in one arm and
12.5cm of sprit in the other. What is the relative density of spirit?
Ans:- Pressure exerted by each is equal,
ϱ gh = ϱ gh
h ϱ 10 × 1
ϱ = = = 0.8g cm
h 12.5
ϱ 0.8
So, Relative density of spirit = = = 0.8
ϱ 1
6. Why is mercury preferred as a barometric substance over water?
Ans:- Pressure. P = ϱ gh
1
and h ∝ (for constant P). Since mercury is a most dense liquid there
ϱ
fore the barometric arrangement will be of very convenient size.
Height of water in barometer is,
P 1 × 10
h = = = 10.3.
ϱ g 10 × 9.8
and the height of mercury in barometer is,
P 1 × 10
h = = = 0.76m.
ρ g (13.6 × 10 ) × 9.8
So, the tube required for water barometer should be long, which is very in
convenient and in mercury it is convenient.
16
Buoyancy
When a body is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, it displaces the fluid, the
displaced fluid has tendency to regain its original position. Due to it an upward force is
exerted on the body by the fluid. So, this upward force is called upward thrust or buoyant
force or simply buoyancy.
Law of Flotation
When a body of density ρ, volume V is immersed completely in a liuqid ρ. then,
(i) True weight (W = mg = V )
(ii) Buoyant force or upward thrust w’ = V equal to the weight of the liquid displaced
now the following cases may rise.
a) If w > w’ or ( > ) → The body will sink to the bottom of the liquid.
b) If w< w’ or ( < ) → In this case the body will rise above the surface of the liquid.
The body then will float.
c) If w = w’ or ( = ) → The body will float of its whole volume is just immersed in
the liquid. So, the body is at rest any where in the liquid.
 The force of buoyancy acts through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid which
is called centre of buoyancy.
Archemede’s Principle
It states that when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid at
rest, it experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by
it.
Consider a body of height ‘h’ and mass M. immersed in a liquid of density
ρ. the total depth of the B part of the body. = (x + h).
Now,
Thrust acting on the A part of the body
F = P a= xρga − (1) (∵ p = ρ g h )
Again,
Thrust acting on the B part of the body
F = P a = (x + h)ρ g a − − − (2)
Since, F > F then net thrust acting on the body,
F − F = (x + h) ρ g a – x ρ g a = ρ g ha
So, F − F = Vρ g = mg (∵ a h ρ = m)
17
F = mg weight of liquid displaced. So, observed weight of the body in liquid
= W-F = Mg - mg.
So, observed weight of the body in the liquid becomes less than its true weight of
the liquid displaced by body.
Apparent weight of immersed body.
Apparent weight = Actual weight – Buoyant force
ρ
W = w – F = V σ g − Vρ g = Vσg 1−
σ
∴ = −
Solved Examples
1. A solid floats with of its volume above the surface of water, calculate the
density of the solid.
Ans:- Let v and σ be the density of the solid and ρ be the density of water.
Weight of the body = Mg = V σ g
V
volume of solid outside water =
4
V 3V
volume of solid inside water V − =
4 4
3V
weight of water displaced by solid = × 10 × g
4
A solid body is floating, then weight of the body = weight of water displaced by it.
3V
Vσ g = × 10 × g
4
3
∴ σ = × 1000 = .
4
2. The tip of the ice-berg, the density of ice is 917 kg/m3. What fraction of ice lies
below water? The density of sea water is 1024kg/m3. What fraction of the ice -
berg do we see assuming that it has the same density as ordinary ice? (917kg/m3).
Ans:- According the law of flotation,
Weight of the piece of ice = weight of liquid displaced
Vρ g = V ρ g
V ρ 917
= = = 0.917
V ρ′ 1000
So, 91.75% of the ice belows water.
18
In the case of ice berg at sea, the fraction visible to us,
V ρ 1 − 917
x =1− = 1− =
V ρ 1000
∴ = .
So, 10.5% of ice berg is visible to us.
3. A piece of pure gold ( = . ) is suspected to be hollow from inside. It

weighs 38.250 gm in air and 33.865 gm in water. Calculate the volume of the
hollow portion in gold. If any.
M 38.250
:− Volume of gold piece = = = 1.98cm
ρ 19.3
Apparent loss in weight of the gold in water
= 38.250 – 33.865 = 4.385g
4.385
∴ Volume of water displaced = = 4.385cm
1
Volume of hollow portion of the gold piece
= 4.385 – 1.98 = 2.403 .
4. A spring balance reads 10kg when a bucket of water is suspended from it. What
is the reading of the spring balance when.
a) An ice cube of mass 1.5kg is put into the bucket.
b) An iron of piece of mass 7.8kg suspended by another spring is immersed with
half its volume inside the water in the bucket? Relative density of iron = 7.8.
Ans:- (a) when the ice is put into the bucket, its total weight = 10+1.5 = 11.5 kg f.
So, the spring balance shows the reaction of the above force = 11.5 kg f.
(b) Density of iron = 7.8 × 103 kg/m3
7.8
Volume of iron piece = = 0.001m .
7.8 × 1000
As only half iron piece is immersed,
0.001
Volume of water displaced = m .
2
Now, up thrust = weight of water displaced.
0.001
Vρ g = × 1000 × g
2
= 0.5g newton = 0.5 kg f.
So, total upward reaction = 10+0.5 = 10.5 kg f.
Reading on the spring balance = 10.5 kg f.
19
Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of the liquid by virtue of which the free surface
of a liquid at rest behaves like an elastic stretched membrane tending to contract so as
to occupy minimum surface area.
Imagine a, line AB on the free surface of a liquid. The force is perpendicular
to the line either side and it is proportional to the length of this line.
F ∝
= .
, = = .
So, it is measured as the force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the
liquid surface, the direction of force being perpendicular to this line and tangential to the
liquid surface.
Some Applications of Surface Tension
a) Rain drops are generally spherical in shape.
b) Small mercury droplets are spherical and larger ones tend to flatted.
c) Oil drop spreads on cold water and it may remain as a drop on hot water because
surface tension of oil is less than that of cold water and it is more than that of hot
water.
Surface Energy
It is defined as the amount of work done against the force of surface tension
informing the liquid surface of a given area at a long temperature.
Consider a rectangular metallic frame ABCD in which the wire AB is movable.
Dip the frame in soap solution. Now increasing the surface and against the surface
tension act tangentially in ward and perpendicular to the sides.
Now, work done = Force × distance

= F × x = S× 2l × x.
So, Increase in surface area of film = 2lx. Sx 2l
Work done = S × Δ A (∵ Δ A = 2 x)
∴ surface energy
= surface tension × increase in area.
surface energy
∵ Surface tension =
increase in area
If unit increment in area then surface tension is equal to surface energy.
20
Experimental measurement of surface tension
From fig. rectangular glass plate suspended from one arm of sensitive balance
and it is balanced by weights on other side. The beaker is raised slightly till the liquid just
touches the glass plate and pulls it down a little because of surface tension weights on
either side are added till the glass plate just leave the water surface then the surface
tension is equal to extra weight added on other side.
w mg
S = =
2 2
So, this is the surface tension of liquid air interface is determined.
Excess of pressure on curved surface of liquid
a) Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Consider a liquid drop of radius R. let S be the surface tension of the liquid.
Due to its spherical shape, there is an excess pressure P inside the drop over that on
outside.
Let the radius of the drop increase from R+ dR.
Initial surface Area = 4 π R
Initial surface Area = 4π (R+dR)2
= 4 π R + 4 π dR + 8π R d R
= 4 π R + 8 π RdR [∵ dR is small so neglected]
Increase in surface Area = (final – initial) surface area
=4π R + 8π RdR−4πR = 8 π R d R.
So, increase in surface energy = surface tension × increase in area
= 8π RdR ×S − − − − − (1)
And work done by the excess pressure to increase the radius
= force × distance. (Increase in radius) = P × 4 π R × ∆ R − − − −(2)
Now, work done by the excess pressure = Increase in surface energy.
21
P × 4 π R ∆R = 8π R ∆R × S
2S
∴P=
R
or, − =
b) Excess Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble

Consider a soap bubble of radius R and again the same case of liquid drop.
So, increase the surface area of bubble = 2[final surface area – initial surface area].
Since, the soap bubble has two free surfaces one outside the bubble and the other
inside the bubble when soap solution and air in contact.
Then,
∆ A = 2 × 8 π R d R = 16π R d R.
And increase in surface energy = 16π R d R × S.
Now,
Work done by the excess pressure = P 4 π R × dR.
So,
Increase in surface energy = work done by the excess pressure.
16π R d R × S = P× 4 π R × dR.
4S
∴ P=
R
− =
Solved Examples
1. Calculate the energy evolved when 8 droplets of water (surface tension 0.072
Nm-1 ) of radius 1/2 mm each combine into one.
Ans:- Volume of big drop = Volume of 8 small drops.
4 4
πR = 8× πR
3 3
R = 8 r = (2r)
So, R = 2r = 2× 0.5× 10-3 = 10-3m
Surface of area of big drops = 4 π R = 4 π × 10 m
Surface area of 8 small drops = 4 πr × 8
= 8 × 4 π(0.5 × 10 )
= 8π × 10 m
22
decrease in surface area = (8π × 10 − 4 π × 10 )m
= 4 π × 10 m
So, the energy evolved = surface tension × decrease in area
= 0.072 × 4 π × 10 = × .
2. What is the pressure inside a drop of mercury of radius 3mm at room

temperature? Surface tension of mercury at that temperature (20°C) is 4.65×10-1
Nm-1. The atmospheric pressure is 1× 105Pa. also give the excess pressure inside
the drop.
Ans:- Excess pressure inside the drop of mercury is,
2S 4.65 × 10
P= = 2× = 310Pa.
r 3 × 10
The total pressure inside the drop = P + P = 310 + 1 × 10
= . × .
3. What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution of radius 5mm, given
that the surface tension of soap solution at room temperature (20°C) is
2.50×10-2 Nm-1? If an air bubble of the same dimension were formed at a depth of
40cm inside a container containing the soap solution (of relative density 1.20)
what would be the pressure inside the bubble? (1atm is 1×105 Pa).
Ans:- Excess pressure inside the soap bubble P =
4 × 2.5 × 10
P= = 20Pa.
5 × 10
2S
Excess pressure inside the air bubble P =
r
2 × 2.5 × 10
P = = 10Pa.
5 × 10
Total pressure inside the air bubble at depth h in soap solution
= P + P + ρ gh = 10 + 10 + 1.2 × 10 × 0.4 × 10
= 10 + 10 + 48 × 10 = . × .
4. A U- shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution and removed. A thin soap film
formed between the wire and a light slider support a weight of 1.5× .
(Which includes the small weight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30cm.
what is the surface tension of the film?
Ans:- Total force on the slider due to surface tension will be, F = S× 2l = S× 0.6N.
23
In equilibrium,
The force on slider = weight mg.
S× 2l = 1.5× 10
1.5 × 10
∴S= = . × .
0.6
Angle of Contact
Angle of contact is defined as the angle θ b/w the tangent to the liquid surface
at the point of contact and the solid surface inside the liquid.
s sa
s sl
s la
Let the surface tension corresponding to these three interfaces be:

a) Surface tension Sla of the liquid air and SSl of the solid liquid surface acting parallel
to the wall.
b) Surface tension SSa of the solid air and SSl of the solid liquid surface acting parallel to
the wall.
c) Adhesive force Fa between the molecules of the vessel and the liquid acting normal to
the wall of the container.
 If Adhesive force > Cohesive force then, liquid wets the solid and has concave
meniscus.
 If Adhesive force < Cohesive force then liquid does not wet the solid and has
convex meniscus.
 Adhesive force = Cohesive force then liquid surface is plane.
For equilibrium,
F = S sin θ
and S = S + S cos θ
So, cos θ =
24
(i) If > then cos θ is ⊕ and < 90° i. e. acute . the liquid meniscus
is
concave so, liquid wet solid.
(ii) < , cos θ is negative and > 90° i. e. angle Is obtuse and liquid meniscus is
convex, so liquid does not wet the solid.
(iii) When = , = ° then meniscus is plane.
 When soap or detergent is added to water, the angle of contact becomes small, and
then the solution of water mixed soap or detergent will penetrate well into the cloth
and becomes effective.
Solved Examples
1. The clothes are better cleaned with hot water than with cold water why?
Ans:- Surface tension decreases with increase in temperature lesser the surface tension.
more is the wetting power of water.
2. Small insects can more about on the surface of water why?

Ans:- Due to surface tension, the free surface of water behaves like stretched elastic
membrane which is able to support the small weight of insects and they can more on
surface of water.
Rise of liquid in a Capillary Tube

(Ascent Formula)
The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube in
comparison to the surroundings is called capillarity.
Consider a capillary tube of radius r dipped in a liquid of surface tension S and
density ρ. Suppose the liquid wets the solid tube then its meniscus will be concave.
Where R= radius of curvature of the meniscus .If θ is the angle of contact then
from right angle triangle.
Pa
25
r r 2S Cosθ 2S
= cos θ , R = . So, P = ∵ P=
R cos θ r R
Due to this excess pressure P, the liquid rise in the capillary tube to height ‘h’,
when the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid column becomes equal to the excess
pressure.
2S Cosθ
= ρ gh.
r
∴ = .
This is the formula for the rise of liquid in a capillary tube.
Solved Examples
1. Water rise in a capillary tube, where as mercury falls in the same tube. Why?
Ans:- In a capillary tube, liquid rises to a height h is given by.
= , for water, θ is acute cosθ is positive and hence h is positive but for
mercury θ is obtuse, cos θ is negative and hence h is negative. So, water rises in the
capillary tube and mercury gets depressed in the capillary tube.
2. Two narrow bores of diameters 3mm and 6mm are joined together to form a U
shaped tube open at both ends. If the U tube contains water, what is the
difference in its levels in the two limbs of the tube? Surface tension of water at
the temperature of the experiment is 7.3× 10-2 Nm-1. Take the angle of contact to
zero and density of water is 1.0× 103 kg/m3 (g= 9.8 m/s2).
3mm
: − For narrow tube r = = 1.5 × 10 m.
2
Let h , h be the heights rises in narrow and wider tube
2S Cosθ 2S Cosθ
h = and h =
r ρg r ρg
Difference in levels of water in tubes, = h − h
2S Cosθ 1 1
= −
ρg r r
2 × 7.3 × 10 × cos0° 10 10
= −
1 × 10 × 10 1.5 3
3 − 1.5
= 2 × 7.3 × 10 × 10 ≃ ×
4.5
26
Hydrodynamics.
(Fluids in Motion)
Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which an internal force
friction comes into play when a fluid is in motion and which oppose the relative
motion between its different layers.
The backward dragging force called viscous drag or viscous force.
Viscosity is also called fluid friction.
Let ABCD be the portion of the liquid in between two parallel glass plate and l
be the thickness of the liquid. Let F be the applied force to move the upper plate with a
constant velocity V.
for the flowing liquid, the rate of change of strain or
strain rate.
Δx
Change in shear strain
= =
time interval Δt
V V
= → velocity gradient
Now, In a flowing liquid the shearing stress is directly proportional to strain rate.
Shearing stress ∝ strain rate
Shearing stress = η strain rate.
Shearing stress
η=
Strain rate
F
F
η= A =
V VA
If dV is the difference in velocity of two layers of moving liquid distance dx apart, then
V dV
= = velocity gradient b/w two layers of liquid.
dx
F F
V = dV
So, η= A A
l dx
Thus, coefficient of viscosity of liquid is equal to the tangential force
required to maintain of unit velocity gradient between two parallel layers of liquid each
of area unity.
S.I unit of viscosity is poiseuille or Pa – S of N-m-2 or kg m -1S-1.
27
Variation of Visosity
a) With increase in temperature, the viscosity of liquid decreases.
= ( +∝ + )
But the viscosity of all gases increases with increase in temperature. So, viscosity of
gas is directly proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature i.e. ∝ √ .
b) With increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids increase but the viscosity of water
decreases where as the viscosity of gases remains unchanged.
Solved Examples
1. Machine parts are jammed in winter why?
Ans:- A lubricating oil is generally used to reduced friction between the various parts of
machine. In winter, since the temperature is low, the viscosity of oil b/w the machine
parts increases considerably, resulting in jamming of the machine parts.
2. Rain drops falling under gravity do not acquire very high velocity why?
Ans:- When a rain drop under gravity a viscous drag of air medium acts as it in a
direction opposite to that of motion. According to stokes’s law, the viscous force goes on
increasing with increasing velocity of the drop when the total down ward force is just
balanced by upward viscous drag. At this stage there is no net force acting to accelerate
rain drop. Hence, the drop starts moving with uniform velocity called terminal velocity.
3. The velocity of water in a river is less on the bank and large in the middle why?
Ans:- In the river water flows in the form of streams. The forces of adhesion are less on
the streams in the middle of river than those near the bank. Due to it the velocity of
streams near the bank is least and is maxm in the middle of river.
Comparision b/w Viscosity and Solid Friction

Similarity
a) Both oppose the relative motion.
b) Both come into whenever there is a relative emotion.
c) Both are due to molecular forces.
d) Both act tangentially in a direction opposite to that o motion.
28
Differences
a) Viscous force is directly promotional to the area of layers in contact where as solid
friction is independent of the area so of the surfaces in contact.
b) Viscosity is independent of the normal reaction but solid friction is directly
proportional to the normal reaction.
c) Viscosity is directly proportional to the relative velocity between the two liquid layers.
And solid friction is independent of the relative velocity between two solid surfaces.
Poiseuille’s Formula
Poiseuille studied that the rate of flow of a liquid through a horizontal capillary tube
conclude that the volume of the liquid flowing per second is,
 Directly as the pressure difference across the tube ends.
 Inversely as the length of the tube.
 Inversely as the co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid. And directly as the fourth
power of radius of tube.
V ∝P
1
V∝
1
V∝
η
and V ∝ r
Combining these factors
Pr
V∝
η
∴ =
Derivation of Poiseuille’s formula on the basis of dimensional analysis.

Volume of the liquid flowing per second through the tube depends upon.
a) Pressure gradient.
b) Radius of the capillary tube.
c) Co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid.
P
V∝ r η − − − − − (1)
29
P
V=K (r) (η)
L H. S V = [M L T ]
P [M L T ] [L] [M L T ]
R. H. S (r) (η) =
M LT
= M L T
Applying principle of homogeneity,
[M L T ]= M L T
a + c = 0, − 2a + b − c = 3 and − 2a − c = −1.
Solving these eq. s.
a =1, b = 4, and c = - 1.
Putting these values in eq. (1)
P Pr
V=k r η = K
η
π
∴ = ∵ K=
8
Solved Examples
1. Two capillaries of same length and radius in the ratio of 1:2 are connected in
series flows through this system under stream line conditions. If the pressure
across the two ends of combination is 1m of water what is the pressure difference
across the: (i) first capillary (ii) Second capillary?
π Pr πP (2r)
:− V = =
8 ηl 8ηl
, P = 16 P
but P + P =1
P
So, P + = 1 or, P = .
16
16
and P = 1 − P =1− = .
17
30
2. Glycerine flows steadily through a horizontal tube of length 1.5m and radius
10cm. if the amount of glycerine collected per second at one end is 4 ×10-3 kg s-1.
What is the pressure difference b/w the two ends of the tube? (Density of
glycerine = 1.3× 103 kg/m3 and velocity of glycerine = 0.83 Nsm-2).
Ans:- Volume of glycerine flowing per second.
M 4 × 10
V= = m s
ρ 1.3 × 10
According to poisecuille’s formula,
π Pr
V=
8 ηl
8 Vnl 8 × 4 × 10 × 0.83 × 1.5
P= =
π r 3.14 × (10 )
8 × 4 × 10 × 0.8 × 1.5
= = 975.37Pa.
3.14
Stoke’s Law
When a body falls through a viscous fluid, the layer of fluid in contact with the
body move with its velocity. This produces relative motion between difference layers of
the fluid. As a result the body experiences a viscous force which tends to retard its
motion. This retarding force increases with the increase in velocity of the body.
So, according to stokes’s law the backward dragging force or viscous drag ‘F’
acting on the spherical body of radius r, moving through a medium of co-efficient of
viscosity η with velocity v is given by,
F = 6 π η r v.
Derivation of Stoke’s Law

The viscous drag (F) depends upon
(a) Co - efficient of viscosity (η). (b)Velocity of the body (v). (c) and radius of the
spherical body.
Let, F= η v r − − − (1).
Dimensional formula of the eq.
L H. S [M L T ] = K [M L T ] [M L T ] [M L T ]
[M L T ]= K M L T
31
Applying the principle of homogeneity,
a = 1, - a + b + c= 1 and –a - b = - 2.
Solving these values in eqns.
a = 1 , b = 1 and c = 1
F =Kηvr
So, F = 6π η r v. [∵ = ]
Terminal Velocity
m
The max constant velocity acquired by a body while falling through a
viscous medium is called its terminal velocity.
When a small spherical body falls through a viscous medium, three forces
acted on it.
a) Weight of the body acting downward.
b) Upward thrust due to buoyancy.
c) Viscous drag acting opposite to the motion of the body.
Let σ be the density of the body and ρ be the density of the liquid.
Then, weight of the body = mg = V σ g = 4/3 π r3 σ g.
Upward thrust FT = V ρ g = 4/3 π r3ρg.
And,
Viscous drag Fv = 6πη r v
When body attains terminal velocity, then,
FT + Fv = W.
4 4
πr ρg + 6π η r v = πr σg
3 3
4
or, 6π η r v = πr g (σ – ρ)
3
( – )
∴ =
This is terminal velocity.
 If σ – ρ the volume of v is negative i.e. the body will up with a constant velocity. It is
due to this reason that the gas bubbles rise up through soda water bottle.
32
Solved Examples
1. A bigger rain drop falls faster than smaller one. Why?
Ans:- When the rain drop falls under gravity it moves with terminal velocity due to
viscous of air as terminal velocity of a drop varies as the square of its radius therefore a
bigger drop will have greater terminal velocity than smaller one.
2. The velocity of fall of a man jumping with a parachute first increases and then
becomes constant. Explain.
Ans:- when a man jumps out from a height then its velocity increases first. As the
velocity increases the viscous drag of air also increases and soon a stage is reached where
viscous drag and buoyancy of air just balance the gravity pull (mg). Then the man with a
parachute falls with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
3. A small ball of mass m and density σ is dropped in a viscous liquid of density ρ.

After some time the ball falls with a constant velocity. Calculate the viscous force
acting on the ball.
Ans:- Volume of the ball, V =
Mass of the liquid displaced by the ball m’ = ρ

When the ball falls with a constant velocity,
Then, viscous force = effective weight of the ball.
F = mg − m g = (m − m )g
mρ
= m− g= −
σ
4. In milikan’s oil drop experiment what is the terminal speed of a drop of radius
2×10-5 m and density 1.2× 103 kg m-3? Take the viscosity of air at the temperature
of the experiment to be 1.8×10-5 Nsm-2. How much viscous force on the drop at
that speed? Neglect buoyancy of the drop due to air.
2r (σ − ρ) 2 × (2 × 10 ) (1.2 × 10 − 0 × 9)
: − Terminal velocity, V = =
Iη 9 × 1.8 × 10
∴ V = 5.8 × 10 m/sec.
viscous force, F = 6π η r v = 6 × 3.14 × 1.8 × 10 × 2 × 10 × 5.8 × 10
= 3.93 × 10-10 N.
33
\
Streamline flow
When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing a given
moves along the same path and has the same velocity as it predecessor the flow is called
stream line or steady flow.
Turbulent flow
When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity, the
motion of the particles of liquid becomes disorderly or irregular. Such a flow is called
turbulent flow.
Laminar flow
When the flow of the liquid and its velocity is less than its critical velocity then
it each layer of the liquid slider over the other layer. Such a flow in the form of layer is
called laminar flow.
Critical velocity
The critical velocity of a liquid is that limiting value of its velocity of flow
up to which the flow is stream lined and above which the flow becomes turbulent.
The critical velocity depends upon:

a) Co-efficient of viscosity (η) (b) density of the liquid (ρ) (c) diameter of the tube (D).
V =kη ρ D
In diamensional form
[M L T ] = K [M L T ] [M L ] [L ]
Applying principle of homogenity
[M L T ] = K [M] [L ] [T]
a+b = 0 − − − (1)
− a − 3b + c = 1 — − − (2)
and − a = −1 − − − −(3)
solving these eq s.
34
a= 1, b= - 1 and c = -1.
Putting these in above eq .
Reynold’s Number
It is dimensionless parameter whose value decides the nature of flow of
liquid through a pipe.
N η
∵ V =
ρD
So, =
If N values lies between 0 to 2000 the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar. If

> the liquid flow is turbulent and the values of between 2000 to 3000 the
flow of liquid is unstable changing from stream line to turbulent flow.
Physical significance of Reynold’s Number
Reynolds’ number describes the ratio of the inertial force per unit area to
the viscous force per unit area for a flowing fluid.
Consider a tube of small area of cross-section A, through which a fluid
of density ρ is flowing with velocity V.
The mass of the liquid flowing through the tube in time Δt, Δm = A V Δ t × ρ
[∵ volume of the luid = A V ∆t]
Inertial force acting per unit area of the fluid is:
F Rate of change of momentum
=
A A
∆ × ∆
= = = ρv .
∆ × ∆ ×
At viscous force per unit area of the fluid is,
= η = η ∵ F = η
35
PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER
Inertial force per unit area
Thus Reynold’s No →
viscous force per unit area
→ =
Solved Examples
1. (a) What is the largest average velocity of blood flow in artery of radius 2×10-3 m
if the flow must remain laminar?
(b) What is the corresponding flow rate? Take viscosity of blood to be 2.84×10-3
Pa-Sec. density of blood is 1.06× 103 kg/m3.
Ans:- For flow to be laminar, NR = 2000.
N η 2000 × 2.084 × 10 m
(a) V = = = 0.98 .
ρD 1.06 × 10 × 4 × 10 sec
(b)Volume lowing per second = πR V
22
= × (2 × 10 ) × 0.98
7
= . × / .
2. Fog particles appear suspended in the atmosphere. Why?

Ans:- Fog particles have very small sizes. So, their terminal velocity (Vt ∝ ) through
air is very small. So, they appear suspended in the atmosphere.
36
Equation of Continuity
Consider a non-viscous and in compressible liquid flowing steadily
between the sections A and B of a1 and a2 area of cross-sections with velocities v1 and v2
respectively and ρ1 and ρ2 be the density of liquid at A and B respectively.
Mass of liquid entering per second at A= a1 v1 ρ1 and mass of liquid leaving per
second at B = a2 v2 ρ2. If there is no loss of liquid in the tube and the flow of liquid is
steady then,
Mass of liquid entering per second at A = mass of liquid leaving per second at B.
So, a1 v1ρ1 = a2v2 ρ2
And the liquid is in compressible
ρ1 = ρ2
∴ a v = a v
= .
This is equation of continuity.
Solved Examples
1. Water flows through a horizontal pipe whose in term diameter is 2.0cm at a
speed of 1.0m/sec. what should be the diameter of the nozzle, if the water is to
emerge at a speed of 4m/sec?
Ans:- From eq of continuity,
a v = a v
πd πd
−× v = −× v
4 4
v 1.0
or, d = ×d = (0.02) = (0.01)
v 4
∴ d = 0.01m = .
37
Bernaulli’s Theorem
This theorem states that for the stream line flow of an ideal liquid, the total
energy (the sum of the potential energy, pressure energy and kinetic energy) per unit
mass remains constant at every cross- section throughout the liquid flow.
Consider a non-viscous and in compressible fluid flow steadily between
the cross-sections a and a of the points A and B respectively.
v and v be the velocity of the liquid at pt. A and B h and h be the heights of A
and B.
P = Pressure of the liquid applied at A.
P = Pressure of the liquid move out at B.
And ρ be the density of the liquid throughout the tube.
The liquid flow s from A to B if P > P . from equation of continuity,

a v ρ = a v ρ = m.
m
or, a v = a v = = V
ρ
If a > a then v > v .
Work done/second on the liquid by the pressure energy at the section A
= P a ×v =P V [∵ a v = V].
work done/second by the liquid against the pressure energy at section B
= P a × v =P V
Net work done / sec on the liquid by the pressure energy in moving the liquid from the
section A to B .
=P V − P V
38
similarly increase in potential energy / sec of the liquid form A to B,
= mgh − mgh
similarly increase in kinetic energy / sec of the liquid form A to B,
1 1
= m v − mv
2 2
According to work- energy principle,
1 1
P V – P V = (mgh − mgh ) +
m v − mv
2 2
1 1
or, P V + mgh + mv = P V + mgh + m v
2 2
Dividing throughout by mass we get,
+ gh + v = + gh + v
P 1 P 1
Or, + gh + v = + gh + v
ρ 2 ρ 2
So, + + = .
Another form of Bernoulli’s theorem.

a) The sum of all energies per unit volume is consent.
, + + = .
b) The sum of pressure head, velocity head and gravitation head is constant
(divide by g).
+ + = .
c) If the liquid is flowing through a horizontal tube. Therefore there is no level
difference i.e. h
So, + =
Where P is static pressure and is dynamic pressure. This shows that

p increases, V decreases and vice – versa.
39
Limitations of Bernaullis Principle

a) It is applicable only for streamline flow not for turbulent.
b) This is ideally applies to fluids with zero viscosity or non viscous fluids.
c) It is assumed there is no loss of energy during the motion of liquid while some K.E is
convert into heat and is lost.
d) It is also assumed that velocity of every particle of liquid across any area of cross-
section is uniform. In fact the particles of the liquid in the inner most have maxm
velocity.
Some Applications of Bernaulli’s Principle
a) Curved path of a spinning ball: (Magnus effect).

When the ball spins about on axis perpendicular to its horizontal motion it
carries with itself an air of layer due to viscous drag. The streamlines around it are in
the form of concentric circles as shown in fig.
Velocity – decreases
Pressure – increases .
Velocity – increases
Pressure – decreases .
The layer above the ball moves in a direction opposite to that of the
spinning ball, so, the resultant velocity decreases and hence pressure increases from
Bernoulli’s principle. And,
The layer below the ball moves in the direction of the ball, so,
the resultant velocity increases and pressure decreases.
So, due to the pressure difference on the two sides of the ball, the ball curves
downward in the direction of spin.
b) Lift of on aircraft wing (Aerofoil):

The cross –section of the wing of an aero plane looks like an aerofoil. The
wing is so designed that its upper face is more curved (and hence longer) than the
lower face and the front edge is broader than the rear edge. As the air draft moves the
air moves faster over the upper surface of the wing than on the bottom.
40
So, according to Bernoulli’s theorem the pressure above the upper surface
decreases below the atmospheric pressure and similarly on the lower surface pressure
increases above the atmospheric pressure. Then difference in pressure provides an
upward lift.
c) Atomizer or sprayer:
When the rubber balloon is pressed, the air rushes out of the horizontal tube
B decreasing the pressure P2 which is less than the atmospheric pressure Pa in the
container. As a result, the liquid rises up in the vertical tube A.
Solved Examples
1. A fully loaded Boeing air craft has a mass 3.3× 105 kg. its total wing area is
500m2. It is in level flight with a speed of 960km/h.
a) Estimate the pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces of the
wings.
b) Estimate the fractional increase in the speed of the air on the upper surface of the
wing relative to the lower surface. The density of air is 1.2kg/m3.
Ans: (a) Pressure difference on the wings = mg
(P − P )A = mg = 3.3 × 10 × 9.8
3.3 × 10 × 10
∴ P −P = = 6.5 × 10 Pa.
500
41
(b) If v and v be the velocity of upper and lower surface respectively.

According to Bernoulli’s theorem,
1 1
P + ρv = P + ρv
2 2
ρ
P − P = (v − v )
2
v −v
P −P = ρ (v − v )
2
P − P = ρ V (v − v )
v −v 960km 267m
So, V = = = .
2 h sec
v −v P −P 6.5 × 10
now, = = ≃ . .
V ρV 1.2 × (267)
So, fractional increase in the speed of the upper surface = 8%.
2. In a test experiment on a model aero plane in a wind tunnel, the flow speeds on
the upper and lower surfaces of the wings are 70m/sec and 63m/sec respectively.
What is the lift on the wing if its area is 2.5 m 2? Take the density of air is
1.3kg/m3.
Ans:- From Bernaulli’s theorem,
P 1 P 1
+ gh + v = + g h + v
ρ 2 ρ 2
ρ 1.3
P − P = (v − v ) = ((70) − (63) ) ≃ .
2 2
So, lift on the aeroplane = (P − P ) A = 6.05 × 2.5 = . × .
42
Venturimeter
It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of liquid through a pipe.
It is an application of Bernoulli’s theorem.
It consists of a horizontal tube having winder opening of cross-section a1
and a narrow neck of cross – section a2. These two regions are connected with
manometer of liquid density ρm.
P + ρv = P + ρv
1 1 v
P − P = ρ(v − v ) ρ v −1
2 2 v
= ρv −1 ∵ =
ρm – liquid of density
1 a −a
= ρ v
2 a
 If h is the height difference in the two arms of the manometer tube,
P − P = ρ g h.
1 a −a
So, ρ gh= ρ v
2 a
2ρ gh a
v =
ρ (a − a )
volume of he liquid lowing out per second.
= =
−
Solved Examples
1. The flow of blood in a large artery of anaesthetized dog is diverted through a
venturimeter. The wider part of the meter has a cross-sectional area equal to that
of the artery i.e. 8mm2. The narrow part has an area 4mm2. The pressure drop in
the artery is 24Pa. what is the speed of the blood in the artery? Density of blood =
1.06×103kg/m3?
V 2(P − P )
:− v= =a
a ρ (a − a )
43
2 × 24
= 4 × 10
1.06 × 10 [(8 × 10 ) − (4 × 10 ) ]
= . / .
Torricelli’s law of Efflux

According to this theorem the velocity of efflux of a liquid is equal to the
velocity which a body acquires in falling freely from the liquid surface to the orifice.
This result is called Torricelli’s law of efflux.
The word efflux means the outflow of a fluid.
Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small hole on its side to a
height ‘h’ from the bottom. Let h’ be the height of the liquid surface from the bottom and
Pa be the air pressure above the liquid surface.
Let A1 and A2 are cross-sectional areas of the side hole and tank respectively and
v1 and v2 be the velocities at these points. From eq. of continuity.
A v = A v
or, v = v
As A ≫ A so the liquid may be taken at rest at the top

i.e. ≃ .
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at Point. 1 and 2.
h’
1
P + ρ v + ρ gh = P + ρ g y
2
or ρ v = ρ g (y − h′) + ( P − P )
h
1
ρv = ρgh +(P− P ) [∵ y − h′ = h]
2
( − )
then = +
 When the tank is open to the atmosphere , then P = Pa and =
44
Solved Examples
1. Water is coming out of a hole made in the wall of a fresh water tank, of the size
of the hole is increase.
a) Will the velocity of efflux of water change?
b) Will the volume of the water coming out per second change?
Ans:- (a) Velocity of efflux will remain same as it only depends upon the depth of
orifice below the free surface of water.
(b) Volume will change, since the volume of the liquid flowing out per second is equal to
product of area of hole and velocity of the liquid flowing out.
Blood Flow and Heart Attack
In persons suffering with advanced heart condition the artery gets

constructed due to the accumulation of plague on its inner walls. In order to drive the
blood through this construction, a greater demand is placed on the activity of the heart.
The speed of blood flow increases in this region. From Bernoulli’s principle, the inside
pressure drops and the artery may collapse due to external pressure. The heart exerts
further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood bushes
through the opening the internal pressure once again drops leading to a repeat collapse.
This is called heart attack.
45
Some Conceptual Questions

Based on Fluid Mechanics
1. Can water be boiled without heating?
Ans:- Yes, at low pressure, the water boils fast at low temperature. Below the room
temperature when the pressure is made low, the water starts boiling without any heat
supplied.
2. The shape of cars and planes are streamlined why?

Ans:- It is due to this reason that the care or planes are given such shapes so that air
friction is minm . Rather the movement of air layers on the upper and lower side of stream
lined shape body provides a lift which helps in increasing the speed of the car.
3. Deep water runs slow. Explain?

Ans:- According to eqn of continuity av = constant (K). So, v ∝ . in case of deep water,
area of cross-section is large, so velocity v is small i.e. deep water runs slow.
4. Flags flutter in breeze. Why?

Ans:- When air is breezing the air layers are moving with unequal velocity on the two
faces of cotton flag. Due to it there will be unequal pressure on the two faces of the flag
according to Bernoulli’s theorem which results fluttering of flag.
5. It is advised not to stand near a running train why?

Ans:- The velocity of air streams in between the rail and person will be very large as
compared to the velocity of air streams on the other side of person away from the rail.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem the pressure will high on the other side of a person
and low in between the rain and person. So this pressure difference exerts thrown the
person which may push the person towards rail side and the person met with an accident.
6. Two row boats moving parallel to each other and nearby are pulled towards
each other. Explain.
Ans:- When two boats move in parallel directions close to each other, the stream of
water in between the boats is set into vigorous motion. As a result the pressure exerted by
water in between the boat becomes less than the pressure of water outside the boats. Due
to this pressure difference the boat are pulled towards each other.
46
7. A spinning cricket ball in air does not follow a parabolic trajectory.

Ans:- See Bernoulli’s theorem’s application(1)
8. The size of the needle of syringe controls flow better than the thumb pressure
exerted by a doctor while administering an injection. Why?
Ans:- Here size of the needle controls velocity of flow and thumb pressure controls
pressure. According to Bernoulli’s theorem P + ρ gh + = . in this
velocity has more influence. That is why needle has a better control over flow.
9. To keep a piece of paper horizontal we should blow over not under it. Why?
Ans:- when we blow over the paper the velocity of air blow increases and hence
pressure of air on it decreases where as pressure of air below the paper is atmospheric.
Hence the paper stays horizontal.
10. When we try to close a water tap with our fingers the fast jets of water gust
through the openings between our fingers. Explain.
Ans:- so, the area of outlet of water jet is reduced, so velocity of water increases
according to eq. of continuity .
a v = a v = constant.
11. Why do clouds seen floating in the sky?
Ans:- The terminal velocity of a small drop of water is very small. (v ∝ r ). The
small drops of water acquire this terminal velocity much before reaching the ground and
are seen to float in the sky in the form of clouds.
12. An aeroplane runs for some distance on the runway before taking off why?
Ans:- The aeroplane runs for some distance on the runway before taking off to get the
lift. Due to its spherical shape the velocity of air above the plane increases and hence
pressure decreases. The aeroplane gets uplift.
13. Why two stream lines cannot cross each other?

Ans:- If two streamlines cross each other, there will be two directions of flow at the
point of intersection which is impossible.
14. Why dust generally settles down in a closed room?

Ans:- Dust particles are spheres of small radii, after acquiring the terminal velocity,
they start falling through air with uniform speed. As the terminal velocity for small dust
particles will be very small so, they will settle down in a closed room.
47
15. Hotter liquids move faster than colder one why?

Ans:- The viscosity or the internal friction of liquid decreases with the increase in
temperature. Hence hotter liquid moves faster than colder ones.
Thermal Properties of Matter

Heat
 Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of hotness or coldness.
Or,
 Heat energy is a part of internal energy which is transferred from one body to the on
account of temperature difference between the two bodies.
 S.I unit of heat is Joule (J) and the C.G.S unit of heat is calorie.
1 Calorie = 4.186 Joule.
 One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water
through 1°C (i.e. from 14.5°c to 15.5°C).
Temperature
Temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body.
Or,
Temperature of a body is the thermal state/condition of the body, which
would determine the direction of flow of heat when this body is placed in contact with
another body.
Measurement of Temperature
a) Celsius temperature scale:→ The ice and steam point is taken as 0°C and 100°C
respectively.
b) Fahrenheit temperature scale :→ The freezing point of water and boiling point is
32°F and 212° F respectively.
If tc and tF are temperature values of body on Celsius and Fahrenheit
scale respectively is,
48
− −
=
c) Absolute Temperature Scale (Kelvin Scale):→ The freezing point of water and
boiling point is 273.15 K and 373.15K respectively.
= + .
Conversion of temperature from one scale to another
T −O T − 32 T − 273
= =
100 180 100
Thermal Expansion
The increase in the size of the body when it is heated is called thermal
expansion.
Thermal expansion of solid is of three types:
(a) Linear Expansion (b) Area Expansion (c) Volume Expansion.
(a) Linear Expansion:

(i) Increase in tangent ∝ rise in temperature
∆ ∝ ∆T − − − −(1)
(ii) Increase in length ∝ original length.
∆ ∝ − − − −(2)
Combining these two factors.
∆ ∝ ∆ T.
or ∆ ∝ ∆T
where is Co-efficient of linear expansions
Now,
∆ −
= = .
∆ ( − )
So, α is co − ef icient of linear expansi on of the solid rod is defined as the small
change in length per unit original length per oC change in temperature.
49
(b) Area Expansion:

(i) increase in Area ∝ rise in temperature
∆A ∝ ∆T − − − −(1)
(ii) Increase in area ∝ original area
∆A ∝ A − − − −(2)
Combing these two factors.
∆ A ∝ A ∆ T.
or ∆A= β A ∆T
where β is Co-efficient of area expansions
Now,
∆ −
= = .
∆ ( − )
(c) Volume Expansion:

(i) Increase in volume ∝ rise in temperature
∆V∝ ∆T − − − −(1)
(ii) Increase in volume ∝ original volume
∆V∝ V − − − −(2)
Combining these two eq.
∆V ∝ V∆T
or, ∆V=γV∆T
Where γ is co-efficient of volume expansions
∆ −
= = .
∆ ( − )
So, we may define γ as the small change in volume per unit original volume, per ℃
change in temperature.
Relation b/w
Consider a solid cube of each side L, surface area of each face of cube is A and
volume of cube V suppose the cube is heated by a small increase of temperature ΔT.
Then, increase in length, increase in area and volume will be Δ L, ΔA and ΔV
respectively.
Now, New surface area = A + ΔA
Or, A + ΔA = (L+ ΔL) 2 = (L+α L ∆ T)
50
Or, (A + β A ∆ T) = L (1 + α ∆T)
Or, A(1 + β ∆ T) = L (1 + α ∆T + 2α∆T)
∵ A = L AND α ∆T
1 + β ∆ T = (1 + 2α∆T) is very small
so, it can be neglected
β ∆ T = 2α∆T
β
∴ α = − − − (1)
2
and new volume of cube = V + ∆V
or, V + ∆V = (L + ∆L)
or, (V + γ V∆T) = (L + αL∆T)
or, V(1 + γ ∆T) = L (1 + α∆T)
or, (1 + γ ∆T) = (1 + α ∆T + 3α∆T + 3α ∆T ) (∵ V = L )
∵ α ∆T , 3α ∆T can
or, 1 + γ ∆T = (1 + 3α∆T) be neglected be cause
it is small terms
or, γ ∆T = 3α∆T
γ
∴ α = − − − −(2)
3
from eq (1)and (2)
β γ
α = = α =
2 3
So, = =
Solved Examples
1. A black smith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden of a bullock cart. The
diameter of the rim and ring are 5.243 and 5.231m respectively at 27°C. To
what temperature should the ring be heated so as to fit the rim of the wheel?
= . × .
L −L L −L
:− α = , T −T =
L (T − T ) L × α
L −L 5.243 − 5.241
Or, T = + T = + 27.
L × α 5.231 × 1.2 × 10
51
0.002 × 10 2 × 10
Or, T = + 27 = + 27
5.231 × 1.2 5.21 × 12
∴ = ° .
2. A brass wire 1.8m long at 27℃ is held taut with little tension between two rigid
support. If the wire is cooled to a temperature of -39℃ , what is the tension is
developed in the wire , if the diameter is 2.0mm ? α of brass = 2× ℃ and
young’s modulus of brass = . × .
.
Ans: γ= , ∆ = ,
∆
and , ∆ = α ∆T.
= α ∆ T = α (T − T )
F = γ (T − T ) × πr × α
F = 0.9 × 10 × (−39 − 27) × 3.14 × (10 ) × 2 × 10
F = 1 × 10 × (−66) × 3.14 × 10 × 2 × 10
F=− . × N.
3. The coefficient of volume expansion of glycerin is 49 × ℃ . What is the
fractional change in density for a 30℃ rise in temperature?
Ans : γ= = = =
( ) ( ) ( ) (T2−T1 )
= γ (T − T ) = 49 × 10−5 × 30 = 0.0147.
Check Your Skill
1. A brass rod of length 50cm and diameter 3mm is joined to a steel rod of the
same length and diameter. What is the change in length of the combined rod at
250°c. If the original lengths are at 40°C? of brass and steel are 2.10×10-5 and
1.2× 10-5 oc-1 respectively.
Ans: 0.346cm.
52
2. A large steel wheel is to be fitted onto a shaft of the same material. At 27°C the
outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70cm and the diameter of the central hole in the
wheel is 8.69cm. The shaft is cooled using dry ice. At what temperature of the
shaft does the wheel slip on the shaft? Assume of steel to be constant over the
required temperature range. = . × .
: T = −68.8°C.
3. A steel tape 1m long is correctly calibrated for a temperature of 27°C. The

length of the steel rod measured by this tape is found to be 63.0cm on a hot day
when the temperature is 45°C. What is the actual length of steel rod on that
day? What is the length of the same steel rod on a day when the temperature is
o -1
27°C? = . × c .
: L ° = 63.0136cm, L ° = 63cm.
4. The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with

temperature according to the approximate law: = [ + ( − )]. The
resistance is 101.6Ω at the triple point of water 273.16k and 165.5Ω at the
normal melting point of lead (600.5k). What is the temperature when the
resistance is 123.4Ω?
Ans: 384.83k.
5. The triple points of neon and Co2 are 24.57k and 216.55k respectively. Express
these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
Ans: -248.58°c, -56.60°c and -415.44°F, - 69.88°F.
6. A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24cm at ℃ .

what is the change in the diameter of the hole when the sheet is heated to 227℃?
Co- efficient of linear expansion copper = . × ℃ .
Ans: 0.01 cm .
∆
7. Show that the coefficient of area expansions ( ) of a rectangular sheet of the
∆
solid is twice its linear expansitivity α .
53
Expansion of liquids
When the liquid is heated its container also expands. The observed expansion of
the liquid is called apparent expansion which is different from the real expansion.
Co-efficient of apparent expansion:
It is defined s the apparent increase in volume per unit original volume for 1°C
rise in temperature.
=
×
Co-efficient of real expansion:

It is defined as the real increase in volume per unit original volume for
1°C rise in temperature.
=
×
We can show that,
= +
Where γ is co-efficient of volume expansion of the container.
Anomalous Expansion of Water

When water at 0°C is heated, its volume decreases and therefore its density
increases, until its temperature reaches 4°C, above 4°C the volume increases and
therefore the density decreases. Thus water has maxm density at 4°C.
Variation of density of water with temperature Thermal expansion of water
The anomalous expansion of water plays an important role in the survival of sea
animals in cold winter. In winter water attains max m density at 4°C and sinks down.
However the colder water on top of lake reaches temperature below 4°C, it becomes less
54
dense remains at the surface of a lake where it freezes. Now the water at the bottom of
the lake remains at 4°C, in which the water animals can remain safe below the ice.
Triple Point of Water
The triple point of water is the state at which the three phases of water normally
ice, liquid water vapour are equally stable and co-exist in equilibrium.
It is unique because it occurs at a specific temperature of 273.16K and a
specific pressure of 0.46cm of Hg column.
Solved Examples
1. Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200A and
350B. What is the relation b/w TA and TB?
Ans:- Triple point of water on scale A = 200A
and triple point of water on scale B = 350B.
From ques,
200A = 350B = 273.16k.
273.16 273.16
1A = and T =
200 350
Then,
273.16 273.16
T = T
200 350
T 200 4
∴ = =
T 350 7
4
So, T = T .
7
55
Expansion of Gases
At ordinary temperature, the gases expand more than solids and liquids. For
liquids co-efficient of volume expansion is relatively independent of the temperature.
For an ideal gas , the coefficient of volume expansion at constant pressure.
For ideal gas eq, PV = n RT ---(1)
At constant pressure P if Δ V is change in volume for a change in temperature ΔT.
PΔV=nRΔT ----(2)
Dividing (2) by (1)
PΔV nR∆T
=
PV nRT
∆V ∆T
or, =
V T
1 ∆V where γ is co − ef icient
or, = γ
T V ∆T of volume expansion
Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance through unit degree.
∆Q ∝m − −(1)
and ∆ Q ∝ ∆ T − −(2)
Combining these two factors.
∆Q ∝ m ∆T
and ∆ Q = Cm ∆ T
∆
C= . . .
∆
 Specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal .
 Molar specific heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one gram mole of the substance through a unit degree.
56
By definition,
C = MC (∵ M → moleculear mass)
∆Q ∆Q
or, C =M ∵C→
m ∆T m ∆T
1 ∆Q m → given mass
So, C = ∵n=
n ∆T M → molecular mass
 Water equivalent: It is defined as the mass of water in gram which would absorb
the same amount of heat as is required by the given body for the same rising or falling
of temperature.
So,
Water equivalent = Mass × specific heat.
= . .
 Specific heat capacity gas: It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a gas through a unit degree.
Two Principal Specific of a Gas

a) Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume (Cv).
b) Specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure (CP)
The ratio of two principal specific heat of a gas is represented by:
1. A 10kw drilling machine is used to drill a bore in a small aluminum block of

mass 8.0kg. How much is the rise in temperature of the block in 2.5 minutes
assuming 50% of power is used up in heating the machine itself or lost to the
surrounding? Specific heat of aluminum = 0.91 j g-1 oc-1.
Ans:- t = 2.5 min = 2.5 × 60 = 150secs.
Total energy = P× t = 104× 150 = 15× 105J.
As 50% of energy is lost,
57
∴ Energy available
1
∆Q = × 15 × 10 = 7.5 × 10 J.
2
Now,
∆Q = m c ∆ T
∆Q 7.5 × 10
∴ ∆T= = = ° .
mc 8 × 10 × 0.31
Calorimeter
The principle of calorimeter states that the heat gained by the cold body must
be equal to the heat lost by the hot body, provided there is no exchanges of heat with the
surroundings.
Heat gained = heat lost.
Calorimeter as a device used for measuring the specific heat of a substance. It
consists of cylindrical vessel of copper provided with a stirrer. The vessel is kept inside a
wooden jacket and it is thermally isolated from the surroundings.
When bodies at different temperature are mixed together in the calorimeter, heat is
exchange b/w the calorimeter as well as the bodies. If there is no exchange of heat to the
surroundings, then according to the principle of calorimeter.
Heat gained by cold bodies = Heat lost by the hot bodies.
This equation can be used to determine the specific heat and latent heat of different
substances.
1. When 0.15kg. of ice at 0°C is mixed with 0.30kg of water at 50°C in container,
the resulting temperature is 6.7°C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice
(Swater = 4186 J kg-1 k-1).
: − heat lost by water = m s (T − T )
= 0.30 × 4186(50 − 6.7)
= 54376.15J.
heat taken by ice = m L + m S (T − T )
= 0.15 × L + 0.15 × 4186 × (6.7 − 0)
= (0.15L + 4207)J.
Now,
58
Heat lost = heat gained.

54376.14J = 0.15 L + 4207J
0.15 L = 54376 – 4207 = 50169.
50169
∴ L= = 334460 = . × /
0.15
2. A sphere of aluminum of 0.047 kg placed for sufficient time in a vessel

containing boiling water. So that the sphere is at 100°C. it is then immediate
transferred to 0.14kg copper calorimeter containing 0.25kg of water at 20°C.
The temperature of water rises and attains at steady state at 23°C. Calculate
the specific heat capacity of aluminum.
: − heat lost by aluminium = Q = m s (T − T )
Q = 0.047 × s (100 − 23)
Copper = 0.047 × s × 77J.
Heat taken by colorimeter and water is,
Q = m s (T − T ) + m s (T − T )
= 0.14 × (0.386 × 10 ) (23 − 20) + 0.25 × 4.18 × 10 (23 − 20)
(∵ s = 0.386 × 10 Jkg K =, )s = 4.18 × 10 J/kg K .
= 162.12 + 3135 = 3297.12 J.
Now, heat lost = heat gained.
0.047 × s × 77 = 3297.12
3297
s = = .
0.047 × 77
1. In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal a 0.20kg block f the metal at

150°C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.25kg).
Containing 150cm3 of water at 27°c. The final temperature is 40°C. Compute
the specific heat of the metal. If heat loses to the surroundings are not negligible
is your answer greater or smaller than the actual value of specific heat of the
metal? Ans:- 0.43 Jg k , smaller.
59
Change of State
The transition of a substance from one state to another is called a change
of state.
Take some ice cubes in a beaker and the temperature of ice will be at 0°C.
Now it starts heating it slowly on a constant heat source. It is found that the
temperature does not change as long as there is any ice left in the beaker. And the
change state from solid to liquid is called melting and from liquid to solid is called
fusion.
So, both the solid and liquid states of the substance co-exists in thermal equilibrium
during the change of state from solid to liquid.
Now, the change of state from liquid to vapour is called vaporization. Similarly
both the liquid and the vapour states of the substance co-exist in thermal
equilibrium.
 Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid states of a substance
co-exist in thermal equilibrium with each other is called melting point.
 Boiling point: the temperature at which the liquid and vapour state of a substance
coexists in thermal equilibrium with each other is called boiling point.
 Sublimation: The process of transition of a substance from the solid state to the
vapour state without passing through his liquid state is called sublimation. Ex: dry
ice (solid Co2), iodine, naphthalene etc.
Melting of ice with pressure

Take a slab of ice and placed it on the two wooden blocks, attach them to
the ends of metallic wire. Now the wire passes through the ice slab but there is no split
in ice slab.
60
This happens due to the fact that the ice below the wire melts at lower temperature
due to increase in pressure. When the wire has passed, the water above the wire
reaches at ordinary pressure and freezes again. This phenomenon of refreezing of ice
is called relegation.
Ex: Ice skating is possible on snow.
Latent Heat
The amount of heat required changing the state of unit mass of a substance at
constant temperature and pressure is called latent heat of the substance.
Q=mL, where L is latent heat.
= . . / .
 Latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of
substance from solid to liquid at its melting point is called latent-heat of fusion or
latent heat of melting.
Solved Examples
1. Calculate the heat required to convert 3kg of ice at -12°C kept in a calorimeter
to steam at 100°c at atmospheric pressure. Given.
Specific heat capacity of ice → 2100 J .
Specific heat capacity of water→ 4186 J .
5
Latent heat of fusion of ice → 3.35×10 J .
6
And latent heat of steam → 2.256× 10 J .
Ans:- heat required to convert ice at - 12°C to ice at 0°c
Q = mc ∆T
= 3 × 2100 × (0 − (−12) = 75600J.
Heat required melting ice at 0°C to water at 0°C.
Q = mL
= 3 × 3.35 × 10 = 1005000J.
61
Heat required to convert water at 0°c to water at 100°c.

Q = m c ∆ T = 3 × 4186(100 − 0)
= 1255800J.
Heat required to convert water at 100°C to steam at 100°C.
Q = mL
= 3 × 2.256 × 10 = 6768000J.
Total heat required to convert 3kg of ice at - 12°C to steam at 100°C.
Q= Q +Q +Q +Q
= 75600 + 1005000 + 1255800 + 6768000
= . × .
2. Answer the following questions based on the P-T phase diagram of carbon
dioxide as shown in fig.
a) At what temperature and pressure can the solid, liquid and vapour phase of
CO2 co-exist in equilibrium?
b) What is the effect of decrease of pressure on the fusion and boiling point of
CO2?
c) What are the critical temperature and pressure for CO2? What is their
significance?
d) As cO2 solid, liquid or gas at (i) - 70°C under 1atm (ii) - 60°c under 10atm
(iii) 15°C under 56atm?
Ans:- (a) The solid, liquid and vapour phase of carbon dioxide exist in equilibrium at
the triple point i.e. temperature – 56.6°C and pressure 5.11atm.
b) Both the fusion and boiling point of CO2 decreases with decreases in pressure.
c) For CO2, the critical temperature is 31.1°C and critical pressure is 73atm. If the
temperature of CO2 is more than 31.1°C. it cannot be liquefied however large
pressure we may apply.
d) (i) Vapour at -70°C under 1atm (ii) a solid at -6°C under 10atm. (iii) a liquid at 15°C
under 56 atm.
62
Transfer of Heat
The heat can be transferred from one place to another by the following three
modes.
(a) Conduction (b) Convection and (c) Radiation
Conduction
It is a mode of transfer of heat from one part of a body to another at a lower
temperature through molecular collisions without any actual flow of matter.
Ex: When we heat one end of a metal rod its other end becomes hot.
Convection
It is a mode of transfer of heat from the region of higher temperature to the
lower temperature of the medium by the actual movement of the material particles.
Ex: (a) Natural Convection: If the material moves due to difference in density, the
process of heat transfer is called natural convection.
 Land and sea breezes: Specific heat of water is higher than that of soil. So land
and air above it is heated faster in summer during day time than air above the sea. The
air above land expands and rises and its place is taken up by the colder air from sea to
land and is called sea breeze.
And at the night the land gets cooled faster than water. So colder air flows from
land to sea and is called land breeze.
 Trade wind: The surface of the earth and hence the air above it near the equator gets
strongly heated by the sun. The heated air expands and rises upwards. The heated air
expands and rises upwards. The colder from polar region move towards the equator.
63
This produce north ward wind in northern hemisphere and south ward in southern
hemisphere.
Due to the rotation of the earth about its axis from west to east the air closer to the
equator has an eastward speed of 1600km h-1, while it is zero close to the poles. As a
result the actual direction of the wind in the northern hemisphere is north east and in the
southern hemisphere, south west. These winds are called trade winds.
Radiation
Radiation is a mode of transfer of heat from the source to the receiver without
heating the intervening medium.
Thermal Conductivity
Let us consider a rectangular bar of the solid in steady slate. Let two opposite faces
of a section of the rod be maintained at a temperature difference.
Suppose A → Area of cross-section.
Δ x → distance b/w the two faces.
T → temperature of cold face.
(T+ Δ T) → temperature of hot face.
∆
Rate of conducion of heat =
∆
∆Q
Now, ∝ A. − −(1)
∆t
∆Q
∝ ∆ T − −(2)
∆t
∆Q 1
and ∝ − −(3)
∆t ∆x
Combining these factors,
∆Q A∆T
∝
∆t ∆x
∆Q k A∆T
So, ∝
∆t ∆x
Where k is co-efficient of thermal conductivity of a solid is equal to rate of flow of
heat per unit area per unit temperature gradient across the solid.
∆ ∆ ∆
= × = × . .
∆ ∆ ∆
64
Solved Examples
1. An iron bar (L1 = 0.1m), A1 = 0.02m2, k1 = 79 wm -1 k-1 and a brass bar
(L2 = 0.1m; = . , = are soldered and to end as shown in
fig. the free end of iron bar and brass bar are maintained at 373K and 273k
respectively. Obtain expressions for and hence compute (i) the temperature of
the junction of the two bars (ii) the equivalent thermal conductive of the
compound bar and (iii) the heat current through the compound bar.
To
= = .
Ans:- (i) Under steady state, the heat conducted per second through iron bar is equal to
the heat conducted per second through the brass bar.
K A (T − T ) K A (T − T )
H= =
L L
As, A = A = A and L = L = L
K A(T − T ) K A(T − T )
So, H= = − − − − − (1)
L L
K T −K T = K T − K T
K T +K T
T = − − − − − (2)
K +K
79 × 373 + 109 × 273
OR T = = .
79 + 109
Putting the value of T from (ii) and (1)
H= T − =( (T − T ) --------(3)
)
If k’ is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the two bars

KA
H= (T − T ) − − − (4)
2L
from (iii)and (iv)
K K K
=
2 K +K
2K K 2 × 79 × 109
∴ K = =
K +K 79 + 109
65
K = 91.6 wm k .
K A (T − T ) 91.6 × 0.02 × (373 − 273)
(iii) H = =
2L 2 × 0.1
∴ = . .
2. What is the temperature of the steel-copper junction in the steady state of the
system shown in fig.
Length of steel rod = 15.0cm.
Length of the copper rod = 10.00cm.
Temperature of the furnace = 300°c.
Temperature of the other end = 0°c.
The area of the cross-section of the steel rod is twice that of the copper rod.
Thermal conductivity of steel = 50.2 Js-1 m-1 oc-1
and thermal conductivity of copper= 385 Js-1 m-1 oc-1.
Ans:- At steady state,
Rate of heat following into the system = Rate of heat flowing out of the system.
K A (300 − T) K A (T − 0)
=
L L
300 − T K A L
or, = × ×
T K A L
300 − T 385 1 15
or, = × × = 5.57
T 50.2 2 10
or, 300 = 5.57T + T = 6.5T.
300
∴ T= = . ° .
6.5
3. A cubical ice box of thermocole has each side = 30cm and a thickness of 5cm.
4kg of ice is put in the box. If outside temperature is 45°C and coefficient of
thermal conductivity= 0.01 . calculate the mass of ice left after 6
hours. Take latent heat of fusion of ice = 335×103 J/kg.
Ans:- Total surface area through which heat centers into the box,
A = 6 l2 = 6×0.3×0.3 = 0.54m2.
Temperature diff Δ T = 45-0 = 45°c.
Let m mass of ice melted in this time
66
∆T ∆t
∴ ∆ Q = mL = KA
∆x L
45 60 × 60 × 60
= 0.01 × 0.54 × ×
0.05 335 × 10
m = 0.313kg.
Newton’s law of Cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of cooling of a body is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings.
Provided the temperature difference is small not more than 40°C.
dQ
− ∝ (T − T )
dt
dQ
or, − = k (T − T )
dt
heat inthe body Q = m c T.
dmcT
or, − = k (T − T )
dT
d T k
or, − = (T − T )
dt mc
d T k is another constant
or, − = k (T − T ) k
dt ∴k =
mc
d T
or, − ∝ (T − T )
dt
It is also states that the rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional
to the temperature difference between the body and the surroundings.
d T
or, − = k dt
T−T
integerating both sides,
d T
= − k dt
T−T
( − )= − +
or, T−T = e
T= T + e
67
T= T + e e
∴ = +
Solved Examples
1. A pan filled with hot food cools from 94°c to 86°C in 2 minutes when the room
temperature is at 20°c. How long will it take to cool from 71°C to 69°c? Here
cooling takes place according to Newton’s law cooling.
Ans:- The average temperature of 94°C and 86°c is
94 + 86
T= = 90° c.
2
and
The avreage temperature of 71°c and 69°C is
71 + 69
T= = 70°c.
2
As.
dT
= −k (T − T )
dt
(94 − 86) c
= −k (90°C − 20°C)
2
8
or, = −k × 70 − − − (1)
2
(71 − 69) c
and = −k (70°c − 20°c)
dt
2
= −k × 50 − − − −(2)
dt
Solving these two eqns.
70
dt = = 0.7 min = .
50 × 2
68

Properties of Bulk Matter Final HSC - 6

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Properties of Bulk Matter Final HSC - 6

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanical Properties of Solids

d) Tangential or shearing stress: When a deforming force acts tangentially to the

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

b) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B):

c) Modulus of Rigidity or shear modulus (η):

 Shear modulus is involved with solids only.

6. Which is more elastic rubber or steel? Explain.

Stress- Strain curve for a metallic Wire

a) OA → Straight line obeys Hook’s & law.

Classification of Material on the Basis of Stress- Strain Curve.

Ans:- (a) from the two graphs stress for A is more

(b) From Graph:

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Some Applications of Pressure

Specific Gravity or Relative Density

 The density of water is at 4°c is 1× 103kg/m3.

Specific gravity or relative density =

 The excess pressure ( P − P = ρ gh) at depth ‘h’ is called a gauge pressure at

 The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure.

Applications of Pascal’s Law

2.At a depth of 1000m in an ocean.

(b) Gauge pressure P = Pi - Pa + ϱ gh = 1.03 × 10 × 10 × 1000

(b) Force on the window = Gauge pressure × Area

5. A U tube contains water and methylated spirit. Separated by mercury. The

3. A piece of pure gold ( = . ) is suspected to be hollow from inside. It

Now, work done = Force × distance

So, this is the surface tension of liquid air interface is determined.

Excess of pressure on curved surface of liquid

a) Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

b) Excess Pressure Inside a Soap Bubble

2. What is the pressure inside a drop of mercury of radius 3mm at room

Let the surface tension corresponding to these three interfaces be:

2. Small insects can more about on the surface of water why?

Rise of liquid in a Capillary Tube

This is the formula for the rise of liquid in a capillary tube.

Comparision b/w Viscosity and Solid Friction

Derivation of Poiseuille’s formula on the basis of dimensional analysis.

Derivation of Stoke’s Law

This is terminal velocity.

3. A small ball of mass m and density σ is dropped in a viscous liquid of density ρ.

Mass of the liquid displaced by the ball m’ = ρ

The critical velocity depends upon:

If N values lies between 0 to 2000 the flow of liquid is streamline or laminar. If

Physical significance of Reynold’s Number

2. Fog particles appear suspended in the atmosphere. Why?

The liquid flow s from A to B if P > P . from equation of continuity,

Another form of Bernoulli’s theorem.

Where P is static pressure and is dynamic pressure. This shows that

Limitations of Bernaullis Principle

Some Applications of Bernaulli’s Principle

a) Curved path of a spinning ball: (Magnus effect).

b) Lift of on aircraft wing (Aerofoil):

(b) If v and v be the velocity of upper and lower surface respectively.

So, fractional increase in the speed of the upper surface = 8%.

Torricelli’s law of Efflux

As A ≫ A so the liquid may be taken at rest at the top

 When the tank is open to the atmosphere , then P = Pa and =

Blood Flow and Heart Attack

In persons suffering with advanced heart condition the artery gets

Some Conceptual Questions

2. The shape of cars and planes are streamlined why?

3. Deep water runs slow. Explain?

4. Flags flutter in breeze. Why?