1. Define an Ecosystem.

Explain about the structure and function of an Ecosystem

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain
of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined
by A.G. Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
 Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
  Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either
be carnivores or omnivores.
 Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food
chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
 3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve
the exchange of energy.
2. Explain about the following
1. Food Chain
2. Ecological Pyramid
3. Food Web
Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all
plant life. The plants utilize this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to
synthesize their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed
on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and
eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents
by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilized again by the producers.
Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass
of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe
the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the
consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological
pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary
consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same
trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary
consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful.
These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in
number. The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by
apex predators such as the brown snake eagle.
Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains
within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food
chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.

Define Bio Diversity. Explain about different types of Bio diversity

Biodiversity Definition

“Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources including
terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are a
part.”

Types of Biodiversity

There are the following three different types of biodiversity:

 Genetic Biodiversity
 Species Biodiversity
 Ecological Biodiversity

Species diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular
area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to
different microorganisms.

No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For example, humans show a
lot of diversity among themselves.

Genetic diversity

It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual
of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every
human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the same species
of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
Ecological diversity

An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with
each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living
together and connected by food chains and food webs.

It is the diversity observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in

different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity.

Explain about different types of Energy Resources

Energy Sources

There are five fundamental sources of energy:

1. Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy)

2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
3. Nuclear fission reactions.
4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.
5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.
Solar Energy

Solar Energy arrives from the Sun by electromagnetic radiation. It can be used
directly for heat and converted to electricity for other uses. It is a nearly unlimited source, it is
renewable, and largely, non-polluting.

Gravity Generated by the Earth & Moon.

Gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth causes tides. Tidal flow can be harnessed to
drive turbines. This is also a nearly unlimited source of energy and is largely non-polluting.
Combining both both solar energy and gravity provides other useful sources of energy. Solar
radiation heats air and evaporates water. Gravity causes cooler air to sink and condense water
vapor. Gravity then pulls condensed water back to Earth, where it flows downhill. The circulation
of the atmosphere by the process is what we call the wind. Energy can be extracted from the
wind using windmills. Water flowing downhill has a result of gravity can also be harnessed for
energy to drive turbines and generate electricity. This is called hydroelectric energy. These
sources of energy are mostly renewable, but only locally, and are generally non-polluting.

Nuclear Fission Reactions

Radioactive Uranium is concentrated and made into fuel rods that generate large amounts
of heat as a result of radioactive decay. This heat is used to turn water into steam. Expansion of
the steam can then be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. Once proposed as a cheap,
clean, and safe way to generate energy, nuclear power has come under some disfavor. Costs of
making sure nuclear power plants are clean and safe and the problem of disposing of radioactive
wastes, which are unsafe, as well as questions about the safety of the plants under human care,
have contributed to this disfavor.

Energy in the Interior of the Earth

Decay of radioactive elements has produced heat throughout Earth history. It is this heat
that causes the temperature to increase with depth in the Earth and is responsible for melting of
mantle rocks to form magmas. Magmas can carry the heat upward into the crust. Groundwater
circulating in the vicinity of igneous intrusions carries the heat back toward the surface. If this
hot water can be tapped, it can be used directly to heat homes, or if trapped at great depth under
pressure it can be turned into steam which will expand and drive a turbine to generate electricity.

Energy Stored in Chemical Bonds

Energy stored in chemical bonds drives chemical reactions. When the reactions take
place, this energy is either released or absorbed. If it is absorbed, it is stored in the chemical
bond for later use. If it is released, it can produce useful heat energy. electricity, and light.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example: A chemical reaction occurs wherein Hydrogen
reacts with Oxygen in an electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and releases electricity and heat. The
reaction is non-polluting, but currently has problems, such as safely storing and distributing
compressed hydrogen gas, and producing hydrogen efficiently.
Biomass Energy is another example. It involves burning (a chemical reaction) of wood,
or other organic byproducts. Such organic material is produced by photosynthesis, a chemical
process which derives energy from the Sun and stores that energy until the material is burned.
Fossil Fuels - Biomass energy that is buried within the Earth where it is stored until
humans extract and burn it to release the energy. Among these sources are petroleum (Oil &
natural gas), oil shale, tar sands, and coal. All of which will be one of the primary topics of our
discussion here.

Explain about different types of Food resources

The sources of food are broadly classified into two groups, plants and animals and their
related products.
Food From Plants
Plants are a source of a wide variety of nutrients required to keep the human body in perfect
working condition. Humans consume everything from fruits, flowers, even the stem of some
plants, leaves and stem-like lettuce, celery, roots of some plants like carrots, beetroot, and seeds
like wheat, rice, etc.
All food comes from plants, even animals depend on plants. Hence, we obtain food from
plants directly or indirectly. The reason one is advised to consume fruits and vegetables on a daily
basis is that it is a source of rich nutrients.
 Plants provide us with vegetables, coffee, cereals, pulses, fruits, sugar, spices, oil, etc.
Different parts of the plants provide different food materials. Let us have a look at some of the
food obtained from different parts of the plant.
Vegetables
Vegetables are obtained from the plants. Some nutrient-rich vegetables such as beetroot,
turnip, spinach, cauliflower, etc. are obtained from plants. Roots, leaves, and stem of some plants
are edible.
Roots
Radish, turnip, carrot, beetroot are some of the roots that are eaten as vegetables.
Stem
Potato and ginger are the stems that are eaten as vegetables.
Leaves
Spinach, cabbage, lettuce are the leaves eaten as vegetables.
Flowers
Broccoli and cauliflower are the flowers eaten in the form of vegetables.
Fruits
Fruits are a healthy source of food from plants. Orange, mango, apple, grapes are some of
the fruits consumed by humans.
Cereals
Cereals include rice, wheat, maize, jowar, barley, etc. These are a rich source of nutrients
provided by the plants.
Tea, Coffee
Coffee and tea are widely grown in the southern parts of India. These are also obtained
from the plants. Not just these, sugar is also obtained from the plants. It is processed from the
sugarcane plant.
Oil
Oil can be extracted from the seeds and leaves of the plants. Some of the plants
producing oil are castor, mustard, and sunflower.
Spices
Cinnamon, cardamom, pepper, clove, cumin seeds, and ginger are obtained from the
plants and used for cooking purposes.
Food From Animals
Animal products are used as food directly or indirectly. Milk, eggs and meat are important
examples of food from animals.
Animal products too are a rich source of nutrients. The food chain is composed of exactly
these animals starting with organisms that use the energy of the sun to the apex at which the
organisms are predators and rely on producers.
Milk
Cows, buffaloes, sheep, goat, and camels are a great source of milk. Milk is also called as
an ideal food. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
Eggs
Chickens, ducks, geese, and quails are raised for eggs and meat. The egg is a rich source
of protein and vitamin. The yolk of the egg is mostly made up of egg. It also contains vitamins,
phosphorus, calcium and iron.
Meat
Meat is of two types- red meat and white meat.
The meat of cow, goat, sheep and pigs has a lot of fat and is called red meat. White meat
contains less fat and is obtained from chicken and fish. White meat is healthier and can be easily
digested as compared to the red meat.
Meat is rich in proteins, vitamins, zinc, phosphorus and iron.
Explain about the effects of environment on extracting and using mineral resources

Some of the major environmental effects of mining and processing of mineral resources

are as follows: 1. Pollution 2. Destruction of Land 3. Subsidence 4. Noise 5. Energy 6. Impact on

the Biological Environment 7. Long-term Supplies of Mineral Resources.

Mining and processing of mineral resources normally have a considerable impact on land,

water, air, and biologic resources. Social impacts result from the increased demand for housing

and other services in mining areas.

Pollution:
Mining operations often pollute the atmosphere, surface waters and ground water.

Rainwater seeping through spoil heaps may become heavily contaminated, acidic or turbid, with

potentially devastating effects on nearby streams and rivers.

Trace elements (cadmium, cobalt, copper and others) when leached from mining wastes

and concentrated in water, soil or plants, may be toxic or may cause diseases in people and other

animals who consume contaminated water or plants, or who use the soil. Specially constructed

ponds to collect runoff can help but cannot eliminate all problems.

Huge volumes of dust generated by explosions, transportation and processing may lead to

the death of surrounding vegetation. Chemicals used in the extraction processes, such as drilling

muds, are often highly polluting substances.

Destruction of Land:
Mining activity can cause a considerable loss of land because of chemical contamination,

destruction of productive layers of soil, and often permanent scarring of the land surface. Large

mining operations disturb the land by directly removing material in some areas and by dumping

waste in others. There can be a considerable loss of wildlife habitat.

Subsidence:
The presence of old, deep mines may cause the ground surface to subside in a vertical or
horizontal direction. This may severely damage buildings, roads and farmland, as well as alter the
surface drainage patterns.

Noise:
Blasting and transport cause noise disturbance to local residents and to wildlife.
Energy:
Extraction and transportation require huge amounts of energy which adds to impacts such

as acid rain and global warming.

Impact on the Biological Environment:

Physical changes in the land, soil, water and air associated with mining directly and

indirectly affect the biological environment. Direct impacts include death of plants or animals

caused by mining activity or contact with toxic soil or water from mines. Indirect impacts include

changes in nutrient cycling, total biomass, species diversity, and ecosystem stability due to

alterations in groundwater or surface water availability or quality.

Long-term Supplies of Mineral Resources:

The economies of industrialized countries require the extraction and processing of large
amounts of minerals to make products. As other economies industrialize, their mineral demands
increase rapidly. The mineral demands of countries in Asia, such as Malaysia, Thailand and South
Korea have grown phenomenally in the last twenty years.

Explain about water resources and its utilization and over utilization

Water resources:
Water is the most abundant, inexhaustible renewable resource. It covers 70% of the
globe in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, etc. Of this 70%, only 3% is available as freshwater.
From this 3%, roughly 2% is frozen in polar icecaps and only a fraction of the remaining 1% is
used as drinking water (potable). 90% of the water is utilized for agricultural purposes in India.

Use of surface and ground water

Consumptive use: In such uses, water is completely utilized and cannot be reused.
Ex: Domestic, industrial and irrigation
Non-consumptive use:In such uses,water is not completely utilized and is reused
Ex: Hydropower plant
Other uses:

1. Water is used for domestic purposes like drinking, bathing, cooking, washing. etc.
2. Water is used in commercial establishments like hotels, theaters, educational
institutions, offices, etc.
3. Almost 60-70% of fresh water is used for irrigation
4. 20-30% of water is used for industrial operations by refineries, iron & steel
industries, paper & pulp industries, etc.
5. Water plays a key role in sculpting the earth’s surface, moderating climate and
diluting pollutants.
Over-utilization of surface & ground water
The rapid increase in population and industrial growth led to severe demand on water resources.
After using all available surface water resources to the maximum, human beings began using
groundwater to meet their needs.

1. The increased extraction of groundwater far in excess of the natural recharge led
to decreased groundwater level. The erratic and inadequate rainfall caused reduction in
storage of water in reservoirs. This also led to decrease of groundwater.
2. Building construction activities seal permeable soil zone and reduce the area for
percolation of rainwater thereby increasing surface runoff.
3. If groundwater withdrawal rate is higher than recharge rate, sediments in aquifers
get compacted resulting in sinking of overlaying land surface. This is called land
subsidence which leads to structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes and reverses
the flow of canals leading to tidal flooding.
4. Over-utilization of groundwater in arid and semi-arid regions for agriculture
disturbs equilibrium of reservoir in the region causing problems like lowering of water
table and decreased pressure in aquifers coupled with changes in speed and direction of
water flow.
5. Over utilization of groundwater in coastal areas leads to rapid intrusion of salt
water from the sea thereby rendering it unusable for drinking and agriculture.
6. Over-utilization of groundwater lads to decrease in water level thereby causing
earthquake, landslides and famine.
7. Over-utilization of groundwater leads to drying-up of dug wells as well as bore
wells.
8. Due to excess use of groundwater near agricultural fields, agricultural water that
contains nitrogen as a fertilizer percolate rapidly and pollutes the groundwater thereby
rendering the water unfit for potable use by infants. (Nitrate concentration exceeding 45
mg/L).