Relations and Functions

Relations
Ordered Pair

Let A and B be non-empty sets.

If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, then an element of the form 𝑎, 𝑏 is called an

ordered pair, where 𝑎 is regarded as the first element and 𝑏 as the second
element. It is clear from the definition that

(i) 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏, 𝑎

(ii) 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑐, 𝑑 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑

Cartesian product of sets

Given non-empty sets A and B, we can define a new set 𝐴 × 𝐵, called the Cartesian
product of A and B, as a set of all ordered pairs. That is 𝐴 × 𝐵 = { 𝑎, 𝑏 : 𝑎 ∈
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

Example: If 𝐴 = 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝐵 = 1,2,3 and 𝐶 = ∅, then

(i) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = { 𝑥, 1 , 𝑥, 2 , 𝑥, 3 , 𝑦, 1 , 𝑦, 2 , 𝑦, 3 }

(ii) 𝐵 × 𝐴 = { 1, 𝑥 , 1, 𝑦 , 2, 𝑥 , 2, 𝑦 , 3, 𝑥 , 3, 𝑦 }

(iii) 𝐴 × 𝐶 = ∅, since 𝐶 is empty

Relations

A relation is any set of points which connect two variables. A relation is often
expressed in form of an equation connecting the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦. The relation is a
set of points (𝑥, 𝑦) which can be viewed in the cartesian plane.

For example, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 are equations of two relations. Each equation

generates a set of ordered pairs, which we can sketch.

Activity: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

Domain and range of a relation
The domain of a relation is the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs 𝑥, 𝑦 . The domain of a relation is the set of values of 𝑥. The
domain is the set of input values.

The range of a relation is the set of all second elements of the ordered
pairs 𝑥, 𝑦 . The range of a relation is the set of values of y. The range is
the set of output values.
Example: Let 𝐻 = { 1,1 , 1,6 , 2,3 , 3,5 , 7,4 }

The domain of 𝐻 is set 𝐴 = 1,2,3,7 .

The range of 𝐻 is set 𝐵 = {1,3,4,5,6}

Example: Let 𝐺 = { 1,1 , 2,1 , 3,5 , 7,2 }

The domain of 𝐻 is set 𝐴 = 1,2,3,7 .

The range of 𝐻 is set 𝐵 = {1,2,5}

Definition: A function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have
the same first element i.e. a function is a relation in which each element
(member) of the domain is assigned to one and only one member in the
range.

𝐻 = { 1,1 , 1,6 , 2,3 , 3,5 , 7,4 } is not a function because (1,1) and
1,6 have the same first element.

𝐺 = { 1,1 , 2,1 , 3,5 , 7,2 } is a function because no two ordered

pairs have the same first element.
Remark: In the above definition, the image of 𝑦 is usually denoted by
𝑓 𝑥 . Thus the symbol 𝑓(𝑥), which is read 𝑓 of 𝑥 or the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥,
represents the element in the range associated with the element 𝑥 from
the domain.
Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 3, find (a) 𝑓(1) (b) 𝑓(4) (c) 𝑓(−2)

(a) 𝑓 1 = 2 1 + 3 = 5

(b) 𝑓 4 = 2 4 + 3 = 11

(c) 𝑓 −2 = 2 −2 + 3 = −1
Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4, and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ,

find (a) 𝑓(3) (b) 𝑓(−2) (c) 𝑔(4)

(d) 𝑔(−3)

(a) 10 (b) 10 (c) 48 (d) −36

Sometimes the rule of assignment for a function may consist of more than one part.
Such functions are often referred to as piecewise-defined functions.
 2𝑥 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ find (a) 𝑓(2) (b) 𝑓(4) (c) 𝑓(−1)
3𝑥 − 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0

(d) 𝑓(−3)

(a) 𝑓 2 = 2 2 + 1 = 5 (c) 𝑓 −1 = 3 −1 − 1 = −4

(b) 𝑓 4 = 2 4 + 1 = 9 (d) 𝑓 −3 = 3 −3 − 1 = −10

(a) Sketch the graph of the function defined by
4 − 𝑥, −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ
2𝑥 + 1, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
(b) Find the range
Remark Using a graph, we can test if a given relation is a function or
not. Any vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 drawn through a graph will only intersect
the graph at most once.

Example: Determine whether the indicated graph represents a function

or not
(a)
Domain and Range of a function

Example: For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1

(a) specify the domain

(b) determine the range

(c) evaluate (i) 𝑓 5 (ii) 𝑓(50) (iii) 𝑓(21)

(a) 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 1}

(b) 𝑅 = {𝑓 𝑥 : 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0}

(c) (i) 𝑓 5 = 2 (ii) 𝑓 50 = 7 (iii) 𝑓 21 = 2 5

Example: Determine the domain of each of the following functions

3 1
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = (b) 𝑔 𝑥 = (c) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12
2𝑥−5 𝑥 2 −9

3
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = The denominator should not be equal to zero, that is 2𝑥 − 5 ≠ 0,
2𝑥−5

5 5
𝑥≠ The domain of 𝑓 is 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ }
2 2

1
(b) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 9 ≠ 0, ∴ 𝑥 ≠ ±3
𝑥 2 −9

The domain of 𝑔 is 𝐷𝑔 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 3, 𝑥 ≠ −3}

(c) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 Here 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 ≥ 0, you can only find the square
root of 0 and positive numbers

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 ≥ 0

𝑥+6 𝑥−2 ≥0

Sketch the graph of 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12 = 𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 − 2)

Critical values are 𝑥 = −6 and 𝑥 = 2

See that the sketch is on the positive region −∞ to −6 (inclusive) or from 2 to +∞

Therefore the domain of ℎ is 𝐷ℎ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≤ −6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2}

Even and Odd functions

(i) A function 𝑓 is called an even function if 𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the domain
of 𝑓

(ii) A function 𝑓 is called an odd function if 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 in the

domain of 𝑓

Remark:

(i) There are functions which are neither even nor odd

(ii) The graph of an even function is symmetrical about a vertical line (𝑥 = 𝑎)

(iii) The graph of an odd function has a rotation symmetry about a point (180°)
Example: For each of the following, classify the function as even, odd or neither
odd nor even

(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1

(b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥

(c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥
(d) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥+1
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 𝑓 −𝑥 = 2 −𝑥 + 1 Substitute 𝑥 with −𝑥

= −2𝑥 + 1

See that 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 ≠ −2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑓(−𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(−𝑥)

Therefore 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 is not an even function

Next, check if it is an odd function 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑓 −𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 1

− 𝑓 𝑥 = − 2𝑥 + 1 = −2𝑥 − 1 See again that 𝑓 −𝑥 ≠ −𝑓(𝑥)

Therefore 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 is not an odd function

Thus 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 is neither even nor odd

(b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥

𝑓 −𝑥 = 2 −𝑥 3 − 4(−𝑥) Substitute 𝑥 with −𝑥

= −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥

See that 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 ≠ −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 = 𝑓(−𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(−𝑥)

Therefore 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 is not an even function

Next, check if it is an odd function

𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 −𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 1 −𝑓 𝑥 = − 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 = −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥

See that 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)Therefore 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 is an odd function

(c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4

𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑥 2 = 4 = 𝑥2 + 4

See that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝑓(−𝑥), 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(−𝑥)

Since 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝑓(−𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function

Composition of functions

The composition of two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 is denoted by 𝑔𝑜𝑓 and is given by

𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑓 𝑥 ). If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐷 then 𝑔𝑜𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐷.

The composite function 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) means apply 𝑓 first followed by 𝑔

Remark:

(i) 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) is the composition of 𝑔 and 𝑓 and is given by 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 )

(ii) 𝑓𝑔 will only exist if the range of 𝑔 is contained within the domain of 𝑓

(iii) 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) are not always equal (range of 𝑔 = domain of 𝑓)
Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 5.

Then 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 2 + 5 and

2
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 5 = 4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25.

Clearly, 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 .

2 1
Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = and 𝑔 𝑥 = , find
𝑥−1 𝑥

(i) 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) (ii) 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) and

(iii) determine domain of each composite function
 1 2 2 2𝑥
(i) 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 =1 = 1−𝑥 =
𝑥 −1 1−𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

2 1 𝑥−1
(ii) 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 = 2 =
𝑥−1 2
𝑥−1

(iii) Domain of 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ 1}

Domain of 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 1}

Sometimes it is the case that 𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥)

Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 and g 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 . Then
3 3 3
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 and

3 3
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥

Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = −2,3 , −1,1 , 0,0 , 1, −1 , 2, −3 and

𝑔 𝑥 = −3,1 , −1, −2 , 0,0 , 0,2 , 2,2 , (3,1)

Find (a) 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) (b) 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥)

(a)𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = −3, −1 , −1,3 , 0, −3 , 2, −3 , (3, −1)
(b)𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = { −2,1 , 0,0 , 0,2 , 1, −2 , 2,1 }
Activity:
1. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 and
𝑔 𝑥 = 7 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
(a) Find (i) 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) (ii) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥)
(b) Solve the equation 𝑔𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥
2. The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 +
𝑏, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. Given that
𝑔𝑓 1 = 5 and 𝑔𝑔 2 = 14, find
(a) the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏
(b) the value of 𝑓𝑔(−3)
One to one functions

A function is one-to-one or injective if 𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑓(𝑎2 ) implies 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 .

Example: Check which of these functions are 1:1

2 𝑥+1
(i) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 (ii) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 (iii) ℎ 𝑥 =
𝑥+2

(i) 𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 + 1 𝑓 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 + 1

𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑓 𝑎2

𝑎1 + 1 = 𝑎2 + 1

𝑎1 = 𝑎2 therefore, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 is 1:1
 2 2
(ii) 𝑔 𝑎1 = 𝑎1 +1 𝑔 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 +1

𝑔 𝑎1 = 𝑔 𝑎2

𝑎1 2 + 1 = 𝑎2 2 +1

𝑎1 2 = 𝑎2 2 See that 𝑎1 2 = 𝑎2 2 does not mean that 𝑎1 = 𝑎2

Therefore 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 is not 1:1

(iii) ℎ 𝑎1 = ℎ 𝑎2

𝑎1 +1 𝑎2 +1
= Cross multiply
𝑎1 +2 𝑎2 +2

𝑎1 + 1 𝑎2 + 2 = 𝑎1 + 2 𝑎2 + 1

𝑎1 𝑎2 + 2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 2 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 + 2

2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2 + 𝑎1

2𝑎1 − 𝑎1 = 2𝑎2 − 𝑎2

𝑎1 = 𝑎2 therefore, ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 is 1:1
Recall the vertical line test: If each vertical line intersects a graph in no
more than one point, then the graph represents a function. There is also a
basic identification of one-to-one functions. When the horizontal line
intersects the graph of a function in no more than one point then it is one-
to-one.
Hor test
Horizontal
Definition Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function with domain 𝑋 and range 𝑌. A function 𝑔
with domain 𝑌 and range 𝑋 is called the inverse function of 𝑓 if

𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 in 𝑌 and 𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 in 𝑋

Remark: Only one-to-one functions are invertible (have inverses)

𝑥+5
Example: Verify that 𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔 𝑥 = are inverse functions
4

𝑥+5 𝑥+5
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 =4 −5=𝑥+5−5=𝑥
4 4

4𝑥−5+5 4𝑥
𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 4𝑥 − 5 = = = 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses of each other
4 4
Example: Verify that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥 − 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 1 are inverse functions
2
𝑓𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥−1 = 𝑥−1 +1=𝑥−1+1=𝑥

𝑔𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1 − 1 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses

of each other
Remark Graphically, two functions that are inverses of each other
are mirror images with reference to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 i. e. , 𝑓 −1 𝑥 is a
reflection of 𝑓(𝑥) in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Diagram
Finding inverse functions

Example: Find the inverse of each of the following functions

(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1

2 3
(b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 +
3 5

(c) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ≥ 0

Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = { 1,4 , 2,7 , 5,9)}, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

𝑓 −1 𝑥 = { 4,1 , 7,2 , 5,9 }

Activity:
Functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 4, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 and
1
𝑔(𝑥 = ,𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥+1
−1
(a) Find (i) 𝑓 (𝑥)
(ii) 𝑔−1 (𝑥)
(b) Sketch in a single diagram the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) making
clear the relationship between the graphs.
Graphing of functions and transformation of curves

Example: Sketch the graph of

(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥

(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2

1
(iii) 𝑦 =
𝑥

(iv) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = −𝑥 2

(v) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
3
(vi) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑥3 𝑦 = 𝑥−3 3

(vii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5 2 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = 𝑥−4 2

(viii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
The Modulus function

The modulus of a real number is the magnitude of that number. If we

have real number 𝑥, then the modulus of 𝑥 is written as 𝑥 . We say this
as ‘mod 𝑥 ′ . Thus 2 = 2 and −2 = 2 and if we write 𝑥 < 2 this
means that −2 < 𝑥 < 2. The modulus function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is defined as

𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 =ቊ
−𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0

Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥

Example: Solve the following equations

(a) 𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑥

𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑥 𝑥 + 2 = −3𝑥

3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2 −3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2

2𝑥 = 2 −4𝑥 = 2

1
𝑥=1 𝑥 = −2

(b) 2𝑥 − 6 = 3𝑥 + 1

2𝑥 − 6 = 3𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 6 = −(3𝑥 + 1)

2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 1 + 6 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 = −1 + 6

−𝑥 = 7 5𝑥 = 5

𝑥 = −7 𝑥=1

Example: Sketch the following graphs (a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 (b) 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 4

Quadratic functions

Introduction to quadratic equations

An equation is a statement that two quantities are equal and to solve an equation means to find the
value of the unknown. The value of the unknown is called the root of the equation. A quadratic
equation is one in which the highest power of the unknown quantity is 2. For example, 4𝑥 2 −
3𝑥 + 1 = 0 is a quadratic equation.

There are four methods of solving quadratic equations. These are

(i) by factorisation (where possible)

(ii) by completing the square

(iii) by using the quadratic formula

Solving quadratic equations by factorisation

Example: Solve the equations (a) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = 0 (b) 3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 4 = 0

(c) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0 (d) 4𝑥 2 − 25 = 0 by factorisation

(a) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = 0

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0

𝑥 𝑥+4 −2 𝑥+4 =0

𝑥+4 𝑥−2 =0

𝑥 = −4, 𝑥 = 2
 1
Example: The roots of a quadratic equation are and −2. Determine the equation.
3

If the roots of a quadratic equation are 𝛼 and 𝛽 then 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 = 0, hence if

1
𝛼= , 𝛽 = −2
3

1
𝑥− 𝑥+2 =0
3

2 1 2
𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − =0
3 3

5 2
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − =0
3 3

3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
Solution of quadratic equations by completing the square

An expression such as 𝑥 2 or 𝑥 + 2 2 or 𝑥 − 3 2 is called a perfect square. If 𝑥 2 = 3 then 𝑥 =

± 3. If 𝑥 − 3 2 = 8 then 𝑥 − 3 = ± 8 and 𝑥 = 3 ± 2 2. Hence if a quadratic equation can be
arranged so that one side of the equation is a perfect square and the other side of the equation is a
number, then the solution of the equation is readily obtained by taking the square roots of each
side as in the above examples. The process of rearranging one side of a quadratic equation into a
perfect square before solving it is called ‘completing the square’.

Example: Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square method

(a) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0 (b) 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 3 (c) 2𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 8 = 0

Solution of quadratic equations by formula

Let the general form of a quadratic equation be given by 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants

𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏 2
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = − +
𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎

𝑏 2 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥+ =±
2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= − ±
2𝑎 2𝑎

−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Example: Solve the following quadratic equations by using the quadratic
formula

(a) 𝑥 2 +3𝑥 − 10 = 0

(b) 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 3

(c) 2𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 8 = 0
The discriminant of the quadratic equation

−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
In 𝑥 = , 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant of the quadratic
2𝑎

equation. It can be used to determine the nature of the solutions as

follows:

1. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, then the equation has two unequal real roots

2. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the equation has one real root

3. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the equation has two complex but not real roots
Equation Discriminant Nature of solutions

4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 1 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −7 2 − 4 4 −1 = 65 Two real roots

4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 9 = 0 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 12 2 −4 4 9 =0 One real root

5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 2 2 − 4 5 1 = −16 Two complex roots

Example: Determine the nature of the roots of each of the following quadratic
equations

(a) 4𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 25 = 0

(b) 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7 = 0

(c) 𝑥 2 − 25 = 0
Sum and product of the quadratic roots (solutions)

Let 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 be the roots of the quadratic equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.

−𝑏+ 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐

By the quadratic formula we have 𝑥1 = and 𝑥2 =
2𝑎 2𝑎

−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −2𝑏 𝑏

Sum: 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = + = = −
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎

−𝑏+ 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏− 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 2 +𝑏 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐−𝑏 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐−(𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐)

Product: 𝑥1 𝑥2 = =
2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 −(𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐) 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐

= = =
4𝑎2 4𝑎2 𝑎
Example: Solve 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 192 = 0

By completing the square 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 192 = 0

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 192 = 0

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + −2 2 = 192 + −2 2

𝑥−2 2 = 196

𝑥 = 2 ± 14

𝑥 = 16, 𝑥 = −12
Checking

𝑏 −4
Sum of the roots 16 + −12 = 4 and – = − =4
𝑎 1

𝑐 −192
Product of roots 16 −12 = −192 and = − = −192
𝑎 1

It follows that a quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽 is given by 𝑥 2 − 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 =

0. The quadratic equation whose roots are 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −5 is 𝑥 2 − 2 − 5 𝑥 + 2(−5) = 0 or

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
Example: Given that 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 10 and 𝛼𝛽 = −4, find the values of

1 1
(i) + (ii) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
𝛼 𝛽

𝛼 𝛽
(iii) + (iv) 𝛼 3 𝛽3
𝛽 𝛼

(v) 𝛼 − 𝛽 2 (vi) 𝛼𝛽2 + 𝛼 2 𝛽

(vii) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3
 1 1 𝛽+𝛼 10 1
(i) + = = = −2
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 −4 2

(ii) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
2
𝛼+𝛽 = 𝛼 2 + 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 2𝛼𝛽

∴ 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = 102 − 2 −4 = 100 + 8 = 108

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼2 +𝛽 2 108
(iii) + = = = −27
𝛽 𝛼 𝛼𝛽 −4
(iv) 𝛼 3 𝛽3 = 𝛼𝛽 3 = −4 3 = −64
2
(v) 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 𝛼 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 − 2𝛼𝛽 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 2
− 2𝛼𝛽 − 2𝛼𝛽

= 𝛼+𝛽 2 − 4𝛼𝛽 = 102 − 4 −4 = 100 + 16 = 116

(vi) 𝛼𝛽 2 + 𝛼 2 𝛽 = 𝛼𝛽 𝛽 + 𝛼 = −4 10 = −40
(vii) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽2

= 𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽

= 𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 2 − 3𝛼𝛽

3
= 𝛼+𝛽 − 3𝛼𝛽 𝛼 + 𝛽

= 103 − 3 −4 10 = 1000 + 120

= 1120
Example: The roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 3 are 𝛼 and 𝛽. Find a quadratic
equation whose roots are

(i) 𝛼 + 2 and 𝛽 + 2
1 1
(ii) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛼 𝛽

𝛼 𝛽
(iii) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛽 𝛼

(iv) 𝛼𝛽 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 2 𝛽
 2 𝑏 5 𝑐 3
(i) 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 3 = 0 Roots 𝛼 and 𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 = − = − 𝛼𝛽 = = −
𝑎 2 𝑎 2

5 3
𝛼+2+𝛽+2=𝛼+𝛽+4= − +4=
2 2

𝛼 + 2 𝛽 + 2 = 𝛼𝛽 + 2𝛼 + 2𝛽 + 4 = 𝛼𝛽 + 2 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 4

3 5 5
= − +2 − +4= −
2 2 2

3 5
𝑥2 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0 𝑥2 − 𝑥+ − =0
2 2

2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5 = 0
 5
1 1 𝛽+𝛼 −2 5
(ii) + = = 3 =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 −2 3

1 1 1 1 2
= = 3 = −
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽 −2 3

𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0

5 2
𝑥2 − 𝑥 + − =0
3 3

3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2 = 0
 𝛼 𝛽
(iii) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛽 𝛼

5 2 3
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼2 +𝛽 2 𝛼+𝛽2 −2𝛼𝛽 −2 −2 −2 37
+ = = = 3 = −
𝛽 𝛼 𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽 −2 6

𝛼 𝛽
=1
𝛽 𝛼

𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0

2 37
𝑥 − − 𝑥+1=0
6

6𝑥 2 + 37𝑥 + 6 = 0
The quadratic functions-Maximum and minimum values and their graphs

The graph of a quadratic function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is a parabola ∩ or ∪.

If 𝑎 > 0 ∪ minimum curve;

if 𝑎 < 0 ∩ maximum curve

Example: State the nature of the curve

(a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5

(b) 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2

(a) 𝑎 = 2 > 0 ∴ 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

(b) 𝑎 = −1 < 0 ∴ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

Maximum and minimum values of a quadratic function

The maximum and minimum values of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 are the

values of 𝑓(𝑥) at the top or bottom of the curve. These are also called the turning
points of the curve. Using completing of the square, we have

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

2 𝑏
=𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑐
𝑎
 𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑐
=𝑎 𝑥 + − 2 +
2𝑎 4𝑎 𝑎

𝑏 2 𝑏2
=𝑎 𝑥 + +𝑐−
2𝑎 4𝑎

Now the least (minimum) or greatest (maximum) value of this expression occurs
𝑏
when 𝑥 = − . Hence the minimum value of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, (𝑎 > 0) i.e. at
2𝑎

𝑏
the bottom of the curve is 𝑓 − . If 𝑎 < 0, the turning point will be a maximum
2𝑎

𝑏
(the top of the curve) where 𝑥 = − .
2𝑎
Example: Express −5 + 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 in the form − 𝑥 − 𝑎 2 − 𝑏 and hence or
otherwise find its maximum value and the value of 𝑥 where this occurs.

−5 + 6𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 5

= − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 5

= − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + −3 2
− 5 + −3 2

=− 𝑥−3 2 +4

∴ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 4 occurs at 𝑥 = 3

Alternatively, let 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 5

𝑏 6
− = − =3
2𝑎 2(−1)

𝑓 3 =− 3 2 +6 3 −5

= −9 + 18 − 5

=4
Sketching the graph of a quadratic function

To draw the graph, we need a table of values. For a sketch we need only to know:

(i) the shape of the curve

(ii) where it cuts the 𝑦 −axis, this is given by 𝑓(0)

(iii) the positions of the roots. If 𝑓 𝑥 factorises, the roots are easily found;
otherwise approximate values will be sufficient

(iv) the position of the turning point. Remember that the curve is symmetrical about
the axis through this position
Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 16

(a) Find the vertex (turning point) of the graph of 𝑓

(b) Find the range of 𝑓

(c) Find the 𝑥 −intercepts and the 𝑦 −intercepts of the graph of 𝑓

(d) Sketch the graph of 𝑓

 𝑏 4 𝑏
(a) 𝑥 = −
2𝑎
= −
2(−2)
=1 𝑓 −
2𝑎
= 𝑓 1 = −2 + 4 + 16 = 18

∴ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (1,18)

Alternatively,

−2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 16

−2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8

−2 𝑥 − 1 2 − 8 − −1 2

−2 𝑥 − 1 2 + 16 + 2

−2 𝑥 − 1 2 + 18
(b) range 𝑦 ≤ 18

(c) 𝑥 −intercepts

𝑓 𝑥 =0
2
−2 𝑥 − 1 + 18 = 0

𝑥−1 2 = 9 𝑥 = 4, 𝑥 = −2 ∴ −2,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4,0)

𝑓 0 = 16 ∴ 0,16 is the 𝑦 −intercept

The Discriminant and the Quadratic Graph
For a quadratic function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we consider the
discriminant 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, the graph does not cut the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, the graph touches the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, the graph cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 twice
Activity:
1. Express 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10 in the form 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑝 2
+ q.
Sketch the curve, stating the coordinates of the vertex.
2. Express 𝑦 = 3 − 8𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 2
+ c.
Sketch the curve, stating the coordinates of the vertex.
3. Sketch the graphs of
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 (iii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 by
first stating clearly the coordinates the vertex, y intercept, x intercepts
(if possible) and the line of symmetry.
Example
The amount of medicine in Zulu’s blood is given by the function 𝑀 𝑡 = 8𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ,
where 𝑡 is the number of hours.
(i) Find the amount of medicine in Zulu’s blood after
(a) 1 hour (b) 1 hour 30 minutes (c) 8 hours
(ii) (a) Find the number of hours after taking this medicine is it in Zulu’s blood the
highest
(b) Find this highest amount of medicine
(iii) Sketch the graph of 𝑀 𝑡 = 8𝑡 − 𝑡 2 , by taking 𝑡 as the 𝑥 −axis and 𝑀 𝑡 as
the 𝑦 −axis, stating clearly the 𝑥 intercepts, equation of the line of axis and the
turning point
Inequalities

An inequality is any expression involving one of the symbols <, >, ≤ 𝑜𝑟 ≥

Linear inequalities

Example: Solve the following inequalities

(a) 3 + 𝑥 > 7

(b) 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 + 5

(c) 3 − 4𝑡 ≤ 8 + 𝑡
(a) 3 + 𝑥 > 7

𝑥>4

(b) 3𝑥 + 1 ≤ 𝑥 + 5

3𝑥 − 𝑥 ≤ 5 − 1

𝑥≤2

(c) 3 − 4𝑡 ≥ 8 + 𝑡

−5𝑡 ≥ 5

𝑡 ≥ −1
Inequalities involving square functions

(i) If 𝑥 2 > 𝑘 then 𝑥 > 𝑘 or 𝑥 < − 𝑘

(ii) If 𝑥 2 < 𝑘 then − 𝑘 < 𝑥 < 𝑘

Example: Solve the inequalities

(a) 𝑥 2 > 9

(b) 𝑥 2 < 4
(a) ) 𝑡 2 > 9

𝑡2 − 9 > 0

𝑡+3 𝑡−3 >0

Either (i) 𝑡 + 3 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 − 3 > 0

𝑡 > −3 and 𝑡 > 3 ∴ t > 3

(ii) 𝑡 + 3 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 − 3 < 0

𝑡 < −3 and 𝑡 < 3 ∴ t < −3

(b) 𝑥 2 < 4

𝑥2 − 4 < 0

𝑥+2 𝑥−2 <0

Either (i) 𝑥 + 2 > 0 and 𝑥 − 2 < 0

𝑥 > −2 and 𝑥 < 2

∴ −2 < 𝑥 < 2

(ii) 𝑥 + 2 < 0 and 𝑥 − 2 > 0

𝑥 < −2 and 𝑥 > 2 No intersection, Not possible

Quadratic inequalities

Example: Solve the inequalities

(a) 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 − 3 > 0

(b) 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 8 ≤ 0
(a) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 > 0

𝑥−1 𝑥+3 >0

Either (i) 𝑥 − 1 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 3 > 0 OR (ii) 𝑥 − 1 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 3 < 0

(b) 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 8 ≤ 0

𝑡−4 𝑡+2 ≤0

Either (i) 𝑡 − 4 ≤ 0 and 𝑡 + 2 ≥ 0

𝑡≤4 and 𝑡 ≥ −2 ∴ −2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4

(ii) 𝑡 − 4 ≥ 0 and 𝑡 + 2 ≤ 0

𝑡≥4 and 𝑡 ≤ −2 No intersection, Not possible

SKETCHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

𝑝(𝑥)
A function of the form 𝑓 𝑥 = , where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomials over the
𝑞(𝑥)

set of real numbers and 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0, is called a rational function.

How to find the horizontal asymptote

Let 𝑓 be a rational function defined as follows

𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 +⋯+𝑎1 𝑥+𝑎0
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑥+𝑏0
Theorem

𝑚 is the degree of the polynomial in the numerator and 𝑛 is the degree of

the polynomial in the denominator

Case 1: For 𝑚 < 𝑛, the horizontal asymptote is the line 𝑦 = 0

𝑎𝑚
Case 2: For 𝑚 = 𝑛, the horizontal asymptote is the line 𝑦 =
𝑏𝑛

Case 3: For 𝑚 > 𝑛, there is no horizontal asymptote

Crossing an asymptote

✓ The graph of a rational function never crosses the vertical asymptote

✓ The graph of a rational function might cross a horizontal asymptote but

does not necessarily do so
Example:

Sketch the graph of each of the following by first stating clearly the
vertical and horizontal asymptotes

1
(a) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥

𝑥+1
(b) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
 3𝑥 2
(c) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −4

9
(d) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −1

𝑥 2 −4
(e) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −4𝑥
 1
(a) 𝑦 =
𝑥
 𝑥+1
(b) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
 9
(d) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −1
 𝑥 2 −4
(e) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −4𝑥
Oblique asymptotes

Sometimes a line that is neither horizontal nor vertical is an asymptote.

Such a line is called an oblique asymptote, or a slant asymptote.

An oblique asymptote occurs when the degree of the numerator is

greater than the degree of the denominator 𝑚 > 𝑛 .

There can be only one horizontal asymptote or one oblique asymptote

and never both.
Example:

2𝑥 2 −3𝑥−1
Find all the asymptotes of 𝑓 𝑥 = and sketch its graph.
𝑥−2
 𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
Example: Sketch the graph of (i) 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ 2
𝑥 ,𝑥 ≥ 0

−𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
(ii) 𝑓 𝑥 = ൞𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 3
9 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 3