Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

A review on convective heat transfer enhancement using ultrasound

Maryam Dehbani a, Masoud Rahimi b, Zohreh Rahimi a, c, *
a
Medical Biology Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Petroleum and Petrochemical, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
c
Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Due to the high importance of heat transfer, especially convection type, in industrial applications finding some
Convective heat transfer methods to increase the rate of heat transfer and consequently the efficiency of the heat transfer equipment has
Heat transfer enhancement always been of interest to researchers. Ultrasound is a highly efficient and reliable technique for enhancing
Ultrasound
convective heat transfer due to its unique phenomena inside the fluid under its irradiation, such as acoustic
Cavitation
Acoustic streaming
cavitation and acoustic streaming. In heat exchangers, equipment in which forced convection is the dominant
mechanism, ultrasound has shown a positive effect on increasing the efficiency by enhancing forced convective
heat transfer itself and reducing fouling. The present paper summarizes some of the research literature regarding
the applications of ultrasound interference in free and forced convection heat transfer systems, focusing more on
those published in the last decade.

1. Introduction
Nowadays, due to the special importance of heat transfer in many
industrial applications, finding some methods for heat transfer
enhancement has been an attractive topic among researchers. Among
three mechanisms of heat transfer, convective heat transfer augmenta­
tion has been considered the most, regarding its extensive applications
[1]. Convective heat transfer can be defined as the exchange of thermal
energy between a solid body and adjacent fluid or between two bodies
by fluid motion. In free convection, heat transfer occurs by continuous
replacement of cooler fluid parcels with warmer ones due to buoyancy
effects. It can be said that in free convection, the driver of fluid motion is
self-induced forces due to concentration or temperature gradient [2].
Industrial applications of natural convection include reactors, power
generators, heat exchangers, turbines, etc. [3]. In forced convection, the
fluid is forcibly moved from the body surface using external sources,
such as a pump or a fan, and the heat efficiently transports between fluid
and the solid body [4]. Principles of forced convection are used for
designing fluid flowing over a plate with a different temperature, pipe
flow and heat exchangers by engineers. In general, three known cate­
gories of convective heat transfer augmentation techniques can be
classified as active, passive and hybrid methods. In hybrid methods, the
combinations of the previous two techniques are applied [5]. Active and
passive methods are recognized based on the need for external input
during the enhancement process such as energy, power, field, etc. [6].
Passive techniques, which do not implicate external energy, act by dis­
turbing the flow field in the vicinity of the wall and strengthening fluid
mixing, often using geometrical or surface modifications. Most popular
techniques in this category include using extended surface [7], roughing
[8], ribbing [9], grooving with different shapes [10] such as spirally
grooved tube [11], using vortex rods [12], surface coating at the micron
scale [13], using twisted oval tubes [14,15], and hydrodynamic cavi­
tation [16]. Another efficient passive method for heat transfer
augmentation is using nanoparticles which can enhance both convection
and thermal conductivity of the fluid [17-21]. Although passive tech­
niques are simple and cost-effective due to no extra energy consumption
during implementation, active methods have practical advantages of
being more efficient and controllable. The jet impingement technique,
which used both actively and passively, is one of the efficient techniques
for heat transfer enhancement by disrupting the thermal boundary layer
at the stagnation point on the target surface [22]. Other significant
methods in this group are applying magnetic field [23], electric field
[24], acoustic fields [25] and mechanical power [26]. According to the
available references, the primal investigations on convective heat
transfer augmentation using acoustic field date back to before the 1940 s
[27]. One of the most significant acoustic field methods is ultrasonic
heat transfer enhancement, which can be employed as a well-known,
high efficiency and widely used method in different industrial

* Corresponding author at: Medical Biology Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
E-mail address: zrahimi@kums.ac.ir (Z. Rahimi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118273
Received 12 November 2021; Received in revised form 1 February 2022; Accepted 21 February 2022
Available online 25 February 2022
1359-4311/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Dehbani et al.
applications [28].
Ultrasound is the mechanical waves having a frequency above 20
kHz, higher than the upper limit of human hearing and less than mi­
crowave frequency [29,30]. Ultrasound waves propagate through the
medium with different phases as a series of alternative compression and
rarefaction cycles, causing displacement of the molecules from their
position [31]. Ultrasound represents an efficient tool in a wide range of
engineering applications including processes like freezing [32], crys­
tallization [33], fermentation [34], emulsification [35], extraction
technique [31], evaporation [36], chemical reactions [37] and etc.
Ultrasound is usually classified into three categories: high power or
low-frequency ultrasound (20–100 kHz), medium power or intermedi­
ate frequency ultrasound (100 kHz to 1 MHz) and low power or high
frequency ultrasound (1 − 10MHz) [38,39]. Propagation of ultrasonic
waves induces some hydrodynamic effects (Fig. 1); cavitation and
acoustic streaming are the most significant ones involved in heat
transfer enhancement [40]. The dominant phenomenon induced by high
power ultrasound propagation through a liquid medium and the main
characteristic of that is the creation of cavitation bubbles that occur
when exceeding the negative pressure by intermolecular attraction
forces [40-43]. These cavitation bubbles reach a critical size by growing
or joining together and then in compression region implode violently
which induce physical, chemical and heat effects and also generate
extreme local temperature (hot spot) and pressure [44,45]. The tem­
perature and pressure at the vicinity of the collapse location may reach
up to 5000 K and 1000 atm, respectively [46]. Based on previous
research, some physical effects induced by growing, oscillating and
collapsing cavitation bubbles are microstreaming which is generated on
the boundary layer of bubbles, microjets and shock waves, all of which
increase turbulence at micro-scale through the fluid [47-49]. Another
important hydrodynamic phenomenon of ultrasound propagation is
acoustic streaming which is characteristic of low intensity ultrasonic
waves [29,40]. Depending on ultrasound characteristics and distance to
the transducer, the velocity of acoustic streaming varies from 0.01 to 1
m/s, causing turbulence through the medium [50]. Acoustic streaming
is generated inside the both liquid and gaseous fluids and occurs through
the medium in two forms: (1) bulk-driven streaming or Eckart streaming
at a distance of a few centimeters from the ultrasound transducer as a
result of momentum gradient induced by energy dissipation and (2)
boundary-driven streaming or Rayleigh streaming at the vicinity of the
solid boundary as a result of friction between that and the surrounding
fluid [51-53]. Rayleigh streaming, also called microstreaming can
induce rapid mixing [54] and effectively enhance heat and mass transfer
at the solid boundary by reducing the thickness of the stationary
boundary layer [55]. The heating effects of ultrasound propagation
Acoustic cavitation Rayleigh streaming
Micro-scale effects
Atomization Eckart streaming
Macro-scale effects
Fig. 1. Different ultrasound phenomena. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [45].
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Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
induced due to mechanical oscillations is usually weak, as ultrasound is
considered non-thermal energy [45]. This effect in heat transfer systems
is ignorable and used in the calorimetric method to determine the ul­
trasound energy released to the medium.
In 2011, Legay et al. [56] comprehensively reviewed the researches
regarding the influence of ultrasonic waves on heat transfer enhance­
ment, including convection. Other review articles, which evaluated the
effects of ultrasound on different applications, have also provided a brief
overview of the studies on convective heat transfer enhancement using
ultrasound irradiation [57,58]. In the recent decade, many purposeful
investigations are made to reveal the effect of different characteristics of
ultrasound and other influential parameters that could modify convec­
tive heat transfer enhancement. Some variables associated with the
thermal enhancement effect of ultrasound include frequency, power,
propagation medium, geometry of heat transfer system, position of
heating surface relative to ultrasonic transducer surface, and flow rate in
the case of forced convection. The effects of these variables individually
and in combination of each other, have been studied by several re­
searchers to maximize heat exchange. Hence, the aim of the present
paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of mechanisms and
contributing factors in convective heat transfer enhancement using ul­
trasound. We have also summarized the existing literature regarding the
thermal enhancement effects of ultrasound on heat exchangers mostly
those published during the last decade.
2. Influence of ultrasound on heat transfer
From the 1960 s until 2000, scattered studies were performed on the
possibility of using ultrasound as a thermal enhancement technique,
almost all of which focused on boiling and natural convective heat
transfer. Since then the number of studies on convective heat transfer as
well as various phase change processes has been steadily increasing.
Nowadays ultrasound is known as a promising and efficient technique
for heat and mass transfer enhancement due to its unique effects induces
inside the propagation medium.
2.1. Phase change heat transfer
Power ultrasound plays a prominent role in improving phase change
processes in which heat transfer is accompanied by mass transfer. Strong
oscillation inside the liquid which is induced by acoustic cavitation and
microstreaming, results in enhanced heat and mass transfer efficiency of
various processes. In the freezing process, cavitation bubbles act as
nuclei and consequently, enhance the nucleation rate as well as
contribute the formation of tiny and uniformly distributed ice crystals,
Local oscillation Sponge effect
Heating effect
M. Dehbani et al.
causing higher quality of the products [32,59].
Boiling is another significant heat transfer modes, different regimes
of which frequently studied in the presence of ultrasound vibrations by
researchers [56]. Sub-cooled boiling under ultrasonic propagation is
more enhanced in comparison with saturated condition. Low effective­
ness of ultrasound for saturated-boiling heat transfer is due to increasing
the attenuation from bubbles at higher heat fluxes [60]. Acoustic cavi­
tation affects not only nucleation and growth of the bubbles, but also
detachment of bubbles from heating surface. Thereby, the vapor is
prevented to accumulate and make a film on the heating wall surface;
consequently, pool boiling heat transfer is remarkably improved [61].
However, the position of the hot surface relative to the ultrasound
transducer has shown to have a great impact on heat transfer so that
placement of the heating surface at antinodes results in the maximum
enhancement [62]. Choosing higher intensity and lower frequency of
ultrasound cause the influence of that on further improvement of boiling
process [63].
Ultrasound also affects the drying process from different aspects
including reducing drying time, producing the dried material with
higher quality and improving the energy efficiency. Heating and sponge
effects are responsible phenomena to improve the drying process using
ultrasonic waves. Inside a solid medium, the heating effects could result
in mass transfer enhancement through increasing mass diffusivity of
moisture due to the temperature rise. Sponge effect causes releasing the
liquid from the inner to the surface of the solid material. Given the forces
in the liquid releasing can exceed the surface tension; some channels on
a microscopic scale are created inside the solid body which could
intensify its mass interchange with the surroundings [64]. In addition,
micro-vibration effect increases gas turbulence on the solid surface and
improves gas-side heat and mass transfer coefficients. Synergy of
aforementioned effects could effectively enhance heat and mass transfer
by reducing both external and internal resistance.
One of the ultrasound applications, considered by researchers in
recent years, is regeneration of liquid and solid desiccant which is a key
process in dehumidification cycles. The positive influence of ultrasound
on efficiency of silica-gel regeneration process is investigated and
proven through several consecutive interesting investigations [65-67].
For the case of liquid desiccant regeneration, micro-scale droplets which
are generated by atomization cause huge contact area with the air and
consequently enhance the heat and mass transfer [68,69].
Generally speaking, ultrasound has shown a great effect in the phase
change processes due to its unique effects induces inside gas, liquid and
solid medium. Heating and sponge effects in solid, acoustic cavitation in
liquid and acoustic streaming in gas medium are the main factors affect
phase change processes. Various phase change processes in the presence
of ultrasound vibrations have been comprehensively reviewed in recent
years which are listed in Table 1.
2.2. Convective heat transfer
As noted in the previous section, acoustic cavitation and acoustic
streaming are known as two major hydrodynamic phenomena through
the fluid medium under irradiation of ultrasonic waves. Acoustic cavi­
tation, characteristic of power ultrasound inside a liquid medium,
Table 1
Review articles in the last decade dealing with the influence of ultrasound on
phase change processes.
Ref. Processes
Cheng et al. [70], 2015 Freezing
Zhang et al. [71], 2018
Qiu et al. [32], 2020
Ma et al. [72], 2021
Swarnkar and Lakhera [60], 2020 Pool Boiling
Zhang et al. [45], 2020 Drying
Yao [73], 2016 Desiccant regeneration
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Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
generates several hydrodynamic phenomena which are responsible for
vigorous bulk convection and consequently, increase in convective heat
transfer coefficient. Slight oscillatory motion of liquid elements under
ultrasonic wave’s propagation results in microstreaming. In addition,
cavitation bubbles oscillation in the radial direction creates high ve­
locity motion just at the vicinity of the bubbles. This phenomenon is
called micro-turbulence [74].
As mentioned before, ultrasound propagates through the fluid me­
dium as a series of alternative compression and rarefaction cycles. Shock
wave (Fig. 2 (a)) is created inside a liquid due to maximum compression
of gas bubbles; under this maximum compression, rapid pressure rise is
induced inside the bubbles, resulting in sudden cease and burst with
high velocity [76].
Another turbulence-inducing phenomenon under power ultrasound
propagation is microjet ((Fig. 2 (b)). Cavitation bubbles located at the
vicinity of the interface lose their spherical shape due to pressure
gradient. Higher pressure on a portion of cavitation bubbles results in
faster collapse of that compared to the rest part of the bubble. Occur­
rence of this process near the heating surface could result in heat and
mass transfer enhancement due to disturbance of thermal boundary
layer.
At high frequency, the main cause of heat transfer enhancement is
recirculating flows which are generated as a result of acoustic streaming.
Eckert’s streaming which is studied more by researchers can intensify
turbulence inside a fluid and consequently increase heat transfer [25].
According to Legay et al. [56], convection was the most studied heat
transfer mechanism by 2010 so that it accounted for approximately 60%
of the investigations, considering heat exchangers in which forced
convection is the dominant mechanism. Fig. 3 shows the number of
published paper regarding the effect of ultrasound on convective heat
transfer since 1960. As is clear from this figure, this issue was not seri­
ously follow up by researchers until 2000; however since then the
number of studies has increased dramatically. References for 2010–2021
are those reported in Table 2 and Table 3 and discussed in more detail in
this review. 3-D pie presented as Fig. 4 demonstrates the percentage of
published paper from 2010 by subject, showing that the forced con­
vection is composed 64% of all investigations on convective heat
transfer, half of which have evaluated thermal performance of heat
exchangers under ultrasonic irradiation. It indicates that after 2010,
efforts in this area have been progressing to applicative research.
Numerous studies have been performed to explore the factors
contributing to the thermal enhancement effect of ultrasound, as listed
in Table 2 [77-112]. The table has been prepared with more attention to
the researches of the last decade.
It is notable that the results of published paper were reported in this
document based on two factors we defined as follow:
hUS
heattransferenhancementratio =
hnoUS
hUS− hnoUS
heattransferenhancementpercentage = × 100
hnoUS
where hUS and hnoUS represente heat transfer coefficient with and
without ultrasonic vibrations, respectively.
3. Factors contributing to convective heat transfer enhancement
using ultrasound
3.1. Ultrasound frequency
Numerous papers in the literature have reported the enhancement of
natural and forced convective heat transfer using different ultrasound
frequencies. The results of published paperd after 2010 based on their
used frequencies are presented in Fig. 5, illustrating that most of studies
have been performed using low frequency ultrasound ranging from 20 to
M. Dehbani et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Schematic of (a) Shock wave, (b) Microjet. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [75].
Fig. 3. Numbers of published papers dealing with convective heat transfer and
heat exchangers in the presence of ultrasound vibrations.
40 kHz, however, few studies have also focused on heat transfer
enhancement using high frequency ultrasound. Heat transfer enhance­
ment ratio under various condition of thermal system and ultrasound
characteristics has been varied from 1 to 4.
A constant frequency of 28 kHz has been used repeatedly for free and
forced convection heat transfer augmentation. The selection of low
frequency ultrasound for enhancing heat transfer is due to effectiveness
of acoustic cavitation bubbles with less number and larger diameter,
given that with the increase in the ultrasound frequency, the cavitation-
induced effects decreases [113].
The formation and growth of cavitation bubbles require a minimum
period of compression and rarefaction cycle, so in very short cycles,
cavitation bubbles do not have enough time to be generated and grow.
Regarding inverse proportional between ultrasound frequency and
alternation period of ultrasonic waves, with the propagation of high
frequency ultrasonic waves, physical effects induced by cavitation
bubbles implosion do not appear through the medium.[113-115].
Low frequency or high intensity ultrasound induces strong turbu­
lence through the medium due to cavitation-induced physical
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Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
phenomena, which is more desirable in heat transfer augmentation than
the effects of acoustic streaming induced by high frequency sonication
[29].
Before 2010, rare investigations on the influence of sonication with
varying frequency on heat transfer enhancement existed, and the vast
majority of the studies focused on constant frequency, while after 2010
and specially in the last two years this concept has been taken to
consideration by some researchers, so that effect of ultrasonic vibration
with different frequencies and synergetic effects of them on both free
and forced convection are investigated. Dehbani et al. [40] compared
the thermal enhancement effect of 24 kHz and 1.7 MHz ultrasonic
waves, which are located in two different categories of low and high
frequency ultrasound. They studied the natural convection of a thin
platinum wire heated electrically to the surrounding water with and
without ultrasound propagation. They concluded that although higher
heat transfer enhancement was obtained by 24 kHz ultrasound, 1.7 MHz
provided higher performances, which is defined as heat absorbed
through sonication divided by dissipated power to the medium. Another
comparative study between the effects of sonication with various fre­
quencies (40, 80, 120 kHz) on natural convective heat transfer has been
recently performed by Mongkolkitngam et al. [109], concluding that 40
kHz was the most effective.
On the other hand, several studies have been conducted using
varying frequency in forced convection heat transfer. The average value
of enhancement ratio on different flow rates proved to be inversely
related to the ultrasound frequency [106]. The separate and combined
effects of 20 and 33 kHz ultrasound fields on forced convection of water
which was flowing through a tube under constant heat flux, has been
evaluated by Dhanalakshmi et al. [92]. They obtained higher heat
transfer enhancement using 20 kHz ultrasound compared to 33 kHz and
declared that the highest efficiency with a small difference was allocated
to the combination of two frequencies, both of which is in the category
of power ultrasound.
To compare the influence of 25 kHz and 2 MHz ultrasound vibration,
Bulliard-Sauret et al. [29] conducted a study on forced convention heat
transfer of flowing water through a rectangular channel. They reported
the higher effectiveness of low frequency comparing with high fre­
quency. To evaluate the combined effects of low and high frequency
ultrasonic waves, they have recently studied forced convection heat
transfer using their previous setup at different single and dual frequency
configurations [104]. Synergetic effects of acoustic cavitation induced
M. Dehbani et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

Table 2
Some studies on enhancement capability of ultrasound in convective heat transfer.
Ref. Main focus of study Configuration US characteristics Major and interesting achievement

Bergles and Morton Review on heat transfer – – Positive influence of ultrasound on heat transfer
[77] augmentation using enhancement based on results obtained by
1965 acoustic vibrations some researchers
Yukawa et al. [78] Free convection An electrically heated, inclined copper 28 kHz Maximum heat transfer coefficient at
1976 plate in the water Intensity: 0.1–0.48 W/cm2 inclination 60◦ between heated surface and
direction of ultrasound irradiation
Hoshino and Free convection A heated or cooled cylinder in degassed 28 kHz The value of augmentation ratio (hwithUS /
Yukawa [79] water Intensity: 0.1–0.215 W/cm2 hwithoutUS ) is maximum at the node and
1979 minimum at the antinode
Iida and Tsutsui Free convection 0.2 mm diameter, electrically heated, 28 kHz The value of augmentation ratio (hwithUS /
[80] platinum wire in water or ethyl alcohol Maximum power: 33.6 W hwithoutUS ) at different ΔTsat is more than 2 for
1991 water
Lam et al. [81] Free convection Fully saturated and air-dried wooden 50–55 kHz Significant influence of ultrasound on the
1992 cylinders in water at 59.8 ◦ C temperature at center of cylinder for both
saturated and air-dried states
Nomura and Free convection A heated narrow surface exposed to water 40 kHz The value of augmentation ratio (hwithUS /
Nakagawa [82] (Evaluating cavitation Power: 600 W hwithoutUS ) is about 10
1993 and acoustic streaming
separately)
Uhlenwinkel et al. Free convection Cylindrical body in a vessel contained 20 kHz Up to 25-flold increase in heat transfer in the
[83] gases presence of acoustic field
2000
Nomura et al. [84] Free convection Horizontal and vertical surfaces in water 28, 45, 100 kHz Remarkably higher heat transfer augmentation
2000 Power: 110, 210, 25 W using 28 and 45 kHz ultrasound in comparison
(respectively) with that using 100 kHz
Loh et al. [50] Free convection A plate as heat source exposed to the air 28.4 kHz 40 ◦ C temperature drop of heat source for
2002 which filled the gap between the plate and Vibration amplitude: 5–45 amplitudes higher than 25 μm
a vibrating beam μm
Nomura et al. [85] Free convection Horizontal heating plate in both degassed horn type US transducer Enhancement of heat transfer coefficient up to
2002 and tap water 60.7 kHz 10 times at maximum ultrasound power
Power: 5–20 W
Lee and Choi [86] Forced convection CO2 saturated water Unavailable frequency Breaking down the viscous sub- layer and
2002 (Re = 1000 , 4000) flowing in the straight duct Power: 0.138 kW with increasing turbulence due to gaseous cavitation
efficiency about 78% leads to significant heat transfer augmentation
Zhou et al. [87] Free convection Horizontal copper tube in a stainless steel Horn type US transducer The maximum value of augmentation ratio
2004 vessel filled with water, acetone and Unavailable characteristics (hwithUS /hwithoutUS ) is 3.95 for acetone
ethanol
Kim et al. [88] Free convection Thin platinum wire which works as both a 48 kHz Higher heat transfer enhancement for liquid
2004 (Evaluation of global heat source and a temperature sensor Unavailable Power with global cavitation compared to that with
and local cavitation) inside FC-72 local cavitation
Lee and Loh [89] Free convection A plate as heat source exposed to the air 30 kHz 10–75% heat transfer enhancement
2007 which filled the gap between the plate and
a vibrating beam
Cai et al. [90] Free convection Double-layer copper tubes in water, sugar Horn type US transducer The value of augmentation ratio (hwithUS /
2010 water and brine 18 kHz hwithoutUS ) at maximum ultrasound intensity and
Intensity: 50–80 W/cm2 minimum heat flux is about 3.7 for water
Baffigi and Bartoli Free convection Horizontal cylinder heated by joule effect 40 kHz 18% average and 24% maximum percentage of
[91] immersed in distilled water Power: 300–500 W heat transfer coefficient enhancement
2011
Dhanalakshmi [92] Forced convection Water flowing through a miniaturized 20–33 kHz More than 40% heat transfer enhancement
2012 (Re = 250–1183) furnace tube with constant wall heat flux Power: 500–1000 W when combining 20 and 33 kHz ultrasound
Kiani et al. [93] Free convection Cooling of a small stationary copper 25 kHz Maximum heat transfer ratio factor of 4 for
2012 sphere, with different distances from US Intensity: 0–4100 W/m2 maximum ultrasound power
transducers, in ethylene glycol–water
mixture
Rahimi et al. [94] Free convection Platinum wire, used as both temperature 1.7 MHz Heat transfer augmentation of 75.3% with
2012 (Evaluation of sensor and heater, submerged inside water Power: for different number activating transducers at bottom and 204.2%
transducers position) of activated transducers was with activating transducers at side wall.
measured using calorimetric
measurement
Dehbani et al. [40] Free convection Platinum wire, used as both temperature 24 kHz Higher heat transfer coefficients using 24 kHz
2014 (comparative study on sensor and heater, submerged inside water Power: 17.6–27.9 W ultrasound while higher performances using
high and low frequency (calorimetric method) 1.7 MHz at different wire heat fluxes
ultrasound)
1.7 MHz
Power: 9.6 W
(calorimetric method)

Tam et al. [95] Forced convection Distilled water flowing through a 40 kHz Maximum heat transfer enhancement of 12.9%
2016 (Re = 600–3000) horizontal mini-tube with uniform wall Power: 60 W for the case with two US transducers installed at
heat flux which is equipped with different the bottom of the tube
numbers and positions of ultrasonic *Heat transfer augmentation using ultrasound
transducers in the entrance region is higher than that in the
fully developed region.
(continued on next page)

5
M. Dehbani et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

Table 2 (continued )
Ref. Main focus of study Configuration US characteristics Major and interesting achievement

Bulliard-Sauret et al. Forced convection Tap water flowing through a canal between 2 MHz 25–90% heat transfer augmentation due to
[25] (Re = 900–5000) heating blocks and Us transducer Power: 110 W induced microstreaming
2017
Liu et al. [96] Free convection Stainless-steel heater in a 30 ◦ C water tank 40 kHz Up to 284% heat transfer enhancement for the
2017 Evaluation of different distance of heater Power: 150 W case of minimum height from transducers
from US transducers
Inworn and Forced convection 15 cm high flowing water on heating flat (Transducer in downward Up to 20.8% increase in Nusselt number for 40
Chaiworapuek (Re = 60000–200000) surface direction) kHz ultrasound
[97] 25, 33, 40 kHz * Spiky shape of wave irradiation bound using
2018 Power: 60 W thermochromic liquid
Hamadouche et al. Free convection An electrically heated copper tube is 35 kHz Heat transfer enhancement of 17–93% in
[98] immersed in distilled water inside the (Power was determined by different Ra number
2018 rectangular tank calorimetric method but not * Inverse relationship of heat transfer
mentioned) augmentation with Ra number
Chen et al. [99] Free convection A stainless-steel circular heater rod in a 40 kHz Heat transfer enhancement ratio up to 4.01
2018 thermostat water tank at bottom of which Power: each transducer 50 W
three US transducers was attached
Bulliard-Sauret et al. Forced convection Water flowing in a rectangular canal with 5 25 kHz , 2 MHz Decreasing thermal enhancement effects of 2
[29] (Re = 900–5500) heating plate blocks Power: 110 W MHz ultrasound (microstreaming dominance)
2019 with increasing flow rate
Increasing thermal enhancement effects of 25
kHz ultrasound (cavitation dominance) with
increasing flow rate
Shen et al. [100] Free convection Hot wire in 28 kHz The value of augmentation ratio (hwithUS /
2019 water- Al2 O3 nanofluid Power: 60 W hwithoutUS ) up to 2.28
Chen et al. [101] Free convection Water in a cavity with elliptical shape 28 kHz Higher level of heat transfer coefficient and
2019 (focused ultrasound) and water in an Power: 100 W sound intensity in the case of elliptical tank
ordinary cavity with rectangular shape compared to rectangular one
Wang et al. [102] Free convection Water in a cavity with elliptical shape 28 kHz Remarkably higher acoustic streaming velocity
2020 (focused ultrasound) and water in an Power: 100 W and consequently higher heat transfer
ordinary cavity with rectangular shape coefficient for elliptical shape cavity compared
to rectangular one
Bartoli et al. [103] Free convection Heat transfer between a dielectric fluid 40 kHz 80–250% heat transfer enhancement
2020 (FC-72) and an electronic board Total power: 500 W * Decrease in heat-transfer enhancement with
increasing the subcooling value
Poncet et al. [104] Forced convection Water flowing through a rectangular 25 kHz , 2 MHz Heat transfer augmentation factor up to 366%
2021 (Re = 1018) channel with heating blocks and six Power: 105 W for dual frequency due to synergetic effect of
different single and dual frequency low-and-high-frequency sonication
configurations
Prodanov [105] Free convection Heated horizontal cylinder in the air Two opposite ultrasonic rings No heat transfer augmentation
2021 with 8 transducers *Remarkable enhancement in audible range
40 kHz
Power: 14.81 W
Viriyananon et al. Forced convection Water flowing through a narrow duct with (Transducer in downward Only 0.2–2% increase in friction loss, while
[106] (Turbulent flow) a rectangular shape direction) 8.1–48.6% heat transfer enhancement
2021 (Re = 10000–25000) 25, 33, 40 kHz * Maximum thermal performance of 1.493 at
Re = 12500 and f = 33 kHz
Phetchoo et al. Forced convection 15 cm high flowing water on heating flat (Transducer in downward The effect of 80 kHz ultrasound was negligible
[107] (Laminar flow) surface direction) compared to 40 and 120 kHz whose maximum
2021 (Re = 65181–148390) 40, 80, 120 kHz Nusselt numbers enhancement, respectively,
were up to 15% and 31% at the end of the test
section
Martínez-Ramos Forced convection A copper body with various geometries 20 kHz Efficiency of ultrasound in heating of ham
et al. [108] (Re = 15.2–215.2) (cube, sphere and cylinder) inside different Intensity: 0–6913 W/m2 pieces
2021 immersion mediums (water, mixture of * Validation of New Nu equation for process
water and ethylene glycol, CaCl2 aqueous with effects of both acoustic field and forced
solution) convection flow field
Mongkolkitngam Free convection Vertical cylinder with constant heat flux in 40, 80, 120 kHz Maximum heat transfer enhancement of 82.4%
et al. [109] distilled water at minimum distance and US frequency
2021 *Various distance of triple-frequency US * Higher efficiency of 120 kHz ultrasound was
transducers from the heater obtained for farther distances
Musielak and Forced convection Samples with different shapes (cuboid, 26 kHz Maximum heat transfer enhancement of almost
Mierzwa [110] cube and two different sizes of cylinder) Power: 0–200 W 250% for cubic sample exposed to the air at
2021 exposed to the air at 40 and 60 ◦ C 60 ◦ C using ultrasound at maximum power
Azimy et al. [110] Forced convection Water flowing in a canal with rectangular 40 kHz Maximum heat transfer enhancement ratio of
2021 (flow rate cross section and in direct contact with two Power: 35 , 50 W approximately 1.8
≅ 40 − 210lit/h) rectangular piezoelectric transducers
Azimy et al. [112] Forced convection Nanofluids with different concentration 40 kHz Heat transfer enhancement up to 200% by
2021 Re = 387–1753)) flowing in a canal with rectangular cross Power: 35 , 50 W simultaneous use of maximum ultrasound
section and in direct contact with two power and maximum carbon-nanotube
rectangular piezoelectric transducers concentration

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M. Dehbani et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

Table 3
Some studies conducted after 2010 on enhancement capability of ultrasound in heat exchangers.
Ref. Main focus of study Configuration and working fluids US characteristics Major and interesting achievement

Gondrexon Sell-and-tube heat Cold water flowing in shell which is 35 kHz The value of enhancement ratio (hwithUS /hwithoutUS )
et al. [125] exchanger equipped with ultrasound transducer Power: 0–98 W up to 2.57
2010 And hot water in tube
Yao et al Shell-and-tube heat Cold water in shell which is equipped with 21 kHz 13% and 17% heat transfer enhancement,
[126] exchanger ultrasound transducer Power: 40, 60, 100 W respectively, for 60 W and 80 W ultrasound
2010 Hot water in tube power
Legay et al. Double-Pipe heat Hot water flowing through 35 kHz Efficiency of ultrasound as a heat transfer
[127] exchanger the central pipe and cold water flowing Power (using calorimetric augmentation technique was proven using
2012 through the annular gap between inner measurement in various water energy balance
and outer tube which is equipped with US flow rate): mostly 70–75 W
transducer
Legay et al. Shell-and-tube and Hot water flowg through 35 kHz Enhancement of overall heat transfer coefficient
[128] double-pipe heat the inner tube and cold water flowing Power: in different values of flow up to 2.5 times for shell-and-tube heat exchanger
2012 exchangers through the shell which is equipped with rate was measured using
US transducer calorimetric measurement for *Slightly more enhancement factor for shell-and-
both heat exchangers tube compared to double-pipe heat exchanger
Rahimi et al. Double-pipe heat Hot water flowing through 1.7 MHz Temperature drop in the hot side up to 10 times
[129] exchanger the central pipe and cold water flowing Power (using calorimetric at maximum ultrasound power
2014 through the annular gap between inner measurement): 14.8 W
and outer tube which is equipped with
eight ultrasonic transducers
Hotrum et al. Pilot scale plate heat Thermal processing of milk with the focus 20, 60, 150 kHz 3 h delay in onset of increase in TRS
[130] exchanger on preventing bio-fouling to enhance heat Power: 0–200 W concentration compared to the conventional
2015 transfer process
Chen et al. Double-pipe heat Deionized water passing inner tube and 28–40 kHz Maximum antifouling for 28 kHz and 50 W
[131] exchanger with cooling water with different hardness Power: 25–50 W ultrasound in cooling water with hardness of 300
2016 antifouling effect of flowing through the annular gap mg/lit
ultrasound
Hou et al. Double-tube heat Cold water flowing through the shell and 20.7 kHz Remarkably decrease in fouling resistance using
[132] exchanger with hot water flowing through the tube Power: 0–75 W ultrasound with an efficiency up to 83.7%
2018 monitoring the fouling
Setareh et al. Double-Pipe heat Cold water in annular gap and hot water 26.7 kHz Maximum enhancement ratio (hwithUS /hwithoutUS )
[133] exchanger flowing through the inner pipe where Power: 0–120 W of 1.6 at maximum ultrasound power and
2019 bolted Langevin ultrasonic transducer minimum hot and cold water flow rate
attached
Amiri Delouei Tubular heat exchanger Nano-fluid of Al2O3 -water with various 28 kHz Reduction of pressure drop as a negative effect of
et al. [134] (Re ≅ 3000–8000) concentration flowing through a tube Power: 75–100 W nanoparticles and improvement of heat transfer
2019 which is located in a tank filled with augmentation as the positive effect of that was
water–ice mixture obtained in the presence of ultrasound

Amiri Delouei Tubular heat exchanger Turbulent hot fluid flowing through the 28 kHz Insignificant thermal enhancement effects of
et al. [135] (Re ≅ 4000 − 11000) smooth horizontal stainless steel tube Power: 75,100 W ultrasound in turbulent flow (up to 728%)
2019 located in the water –ice container compared to obtained results by other
researchers in laminar flow

Setareh et al. Double-Pipe heat Distilled water as cold fluid through the 25.7 kHz Heat transfer enhancement of 87% for Re = 32
[136] exchanger annular gap and saturated vapor as hot Power: 0–100 W and 25% for Re = 674, both at maximum US
2020 (effects of ultrasound and fluid through the inner pipe where bolted power
fluid flow simultaneously) Langevin ultrasonic transducer stuck * Decrease in the effect of acoustic streaming on
heat transfer compared to the effect of fluid flow
with increasing Re

Fig. 5. Influence of frequency on convective heat transfer enhancement ratio

based on publishe paper after 2010.
Fig. 4. Percentage of studies after 2010 by subject.

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M. Dehbani et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

by 25 kHz ultrasound and acoustic streaming induced by 2 MHz ultra­ free convection in the presence of ultrasound propagation. In some re­
sound, which cause greater turbulence within the flow, resulted in searches that have considered the effect of the medium, water has been
higher local heat transfer enhancement of 366% comparing with the compared to some other fluids. In old research of Zhou et al. [87],
algebraic sum of those obtained for single frequencies (238%). natural convection from a cylindrical tube to three kinds of mediums
Generally speaking, low frequency ultrasound has more ability to (water, ethanol and acetone) was investigated indicating the most heat
increase heat transfer due to acoustic cavitation which is the most sig­ transfer enhancement through the acetone due to generation of more
nificant phenomena for enhanced turbulence. Also, simultaneous use of acoustic cavitation bubbles as a result of having higher vapor pressure.
low and high frequency ultrasound results in synery of acoustic cavita­ Cai et al [90] used brine and sugar water at varying concentrations as
tion and acoustic streaming, and consequently heat transfer working fluid of a natural convective heat transfer system. They
enhancement. concluded that with an increase in concentration of sugar water, the
heat transfer augmentation factor always increases while this is not the
case for brine, so that the maximum value of heat transfer enhancement
3.2. Ultrasound power
factor has been obtained for its concentration of 3%. They have
considered the need for further research on the mechanism of heat
During ultrasound propagation, some power delivers to the medium,
transfer enhancement for these two solutions.
which is also expressed as ultrasonic amplitude percentage where 0%
Since the use of hybrid methods for heat transfer enhancement has
and 100% amplitudes, respectively, indicate no sonication and the rated
been very much considered by researchers in the last decade, some
sonication power [116]. The strength of ultrasonic waves may be
experimental studies have focused on the use of ultrasound in medium
characterized by its intensity, defined as the average ultrasound power
containing nanoparticles, which is employed as one of the passive
per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of propaga­
techniques for heat transfer enhancement. Shen et al. [100] studied the
tion [117]. In most of the published articles, ultrasound power has been
influence of 28 kHz sonication on the free convection of the hot wire
reported, and only in some of them, ultrasound intensity is declared. The
through the nanofluidic medium. They concluded that ultrasound
ultrasonic intensity can significantly disrupt velocity and thermal
propagation could improve the positive effect of Al2 O3 nanoparticles.
boundary layers and through that improve heat transfer [116].
They reported an increase by 128% in heat transfer rate by employing
Most studies on free convection heat transfer have been performed at
sonication. In another study by Azimy et al. [112], up to 200% heat
constant ultrasound power and the results of very few studies at varying
transfer enhancement was reported using simultaineous ultrasound and
ultrasound power indicated increased convective heat transfer factor
carbon-nanotube in forced convective heat transfer. They obtained
with the increase in power or intensity of ultrasound [90,111,118].
increased heat transfer enhancement with increasing nanofluids con­
This concept can be explained by the direct proportional of the ul­
centration. They also solved the problem of settling nanoparticles after a
trasound power with the violent collapse of cavitation bubbles. Given
short time, by installing ultrasound transducers on the wall of the
that the size of the resonant bubble is proportional to the ultrasound
channel.
power, at higher ultrasound power, the effects caused by implosion of
FC-72, one of the dielectric fluid variants with high chemical and
bubbles intensifies. This provokes mixing through the medium and
thermal stability, is another working fluid that has attracted researchers
consequently leads to an increase in the heat transfer rate.
attention. Enhanced free convective heat transfer between an electronic
The positive influence of ultrasound intensity on cooling rate
board and FC-72 as coolant liquid using 40 kHz ultrasonic wave has been
enhancement obtained by Kiani et al. [93], who studied cooling of a
proven by Bartoli et al. [103].
small stationary copper sphere in ethylene–glycol mixture at ultrasound
Few investigations concentrate on natural convective heat transfer in
intensities in the range 0 to 4100 W/m2. The maximum enhancement
gaseous medium, in some of which heat transfer enhancement have
factor was obtained for the maximum intensity. At values less than
been proved [50,83,89]. However, Prodanov [105] in her thesis, has
450W/m2 , an increase in the amount of intensity represented more
reported almost no augmentation of heat exchange between heated
effective for the cooling rate enhancement. In other words, more
horizontal cylinder and its surrounding air using 40 kHz sonication.
changes in the cooling rate were reached by small increases in the in­
In the case of forced convection in gaseous medium, recently, an
tensity. However, no considerable further increases in the cooling rate
increase up to about 250% was reported by Musielak and Mierzwa
were observed at the higher intensities. They attributed these results to
[110], with an investigation on heat transfer between flowing air and
the unfavorable heating effect of higher intensities. As ultrasound
different solid samples. They also studied the effect of the air tempera­
propagation increased the cooling rate of the sphere, simultaneously, it
ture (40 and 60 ◦ C), with the conclusion that at higher temperature, the
caused heat generation at its surface due to acoustic bubbles implosion,
thermal enhancement of ultrasonic wave increases.
which gradually diminishes the positive effect.
Using a unique geometry for free convection heat transfer tank,
3.4. System geometry
which will be discussed in the following sections, Wang et al. [102] have
proven that the heat transfer coefficient distribution was in accordance
There are many differences in the geometry of convection heat
with sound intensity distribution, so that at the vessel with higher in­
transfer systems that have been studied by various researchers, such as
tensities, heat transfer enhancement rate is also higher.
difference in the size and the configuration of fluid container in natural
Recently, Musielak and Mierzwa [110] through studying on forced
convection systems, size and the configuration of canals in forced con­
convection from air flowing on the surface of several solid bodies with
vection systems, the direction of ultrasound propagation, the distance
different shapes, have obtained a linear relationship between heat
and angle between ultrasound transducer(s) and the test section, the
transfer enhancement and ultrasound power. Many research on the
shape of heating surface, etc. Using the hot wire inside the container
thermal enhancement effect of ultrasound with varying power has been
filled with a liquid exposed to the ultrasonic waves is a simple and
made on heat exchangers, in which forced convective heat transfer is
frequent geometry of the free convection system which is used many
dominant mechanism. They will be discussed in the relevant section.
times [40, 80, 88, 94, and 100]. Differences in geometry certainly affects
the results despite the same ultrasound characteristics. Contributing
3.3. Propagation medium effect of test section geometry was proved by Musielak and Mierzwa
[110]. They studied the influence of ultrasound on forced convection
By referring to the literature, it can be found that water, due to being from the air to the stainless-steel samples with various shapes: cube,
affordable and accessible, has always been the first choice of researchers cuboid, and cylinders with two different sizes. The results confirmed
as the liquid working fluid in heat transfer systems of both forced and that the enhancement capability of ultrasound highly depends on the

8
M. Dehbani et al.
geometry of the examined samples. Maximum thermal efficiency was
obtained for the cubic sample.
Regarding the effect of distance between test section and ultrsound
transducer, Kiani et al. [93] came to an interesting conclusion. They
evaluate changes in the cooling rate of a spherical body at various dis­
tances from three 25 kHz ultrasound transducers installed at the bottom
surface of the fluid container. They reported that a higher cooling rate
can be reached at the distances closer to the ultrasonic transducer sur­
face, provided the hot body is not located close to the free surface of the
fluid. The maximum heat transfer enhancement factor in their research
was reached at the minimum distance from the gas–liquid interface
which was the maximum examined distance from the transducer sur­
face. Visual observations showed more population of cavitation clouds
around the spherical body and consequently higher cooling rate
enhancement when the body was at a shorter distance to the transducer
surface. However, due to the streamlines, the highest concentrated
cavitation clouds around the body were detected at the position close to
the gas–liquid interface where the cooling rate enhances the most.
Thermal enhancement influence of different numbers and positions of
high frequency ultrasound transducers on natural convective heat
transfer from a horizontal thin platinum wire, which is used as both
heater and temperature sensor, to surrounding water was studied by
Rahimi et al. [94]. They utilized five 1.7 MHz ultrasonic transducers,
three of which were installed at the bottom of a cylindrical container and
two on the side wall of that with equal distances from the bottom and
oppositely directed propagation (Fig. 6). Wall transducers, which
transmit the ultrasonic waves in the direction of the wire center line,
represented higher heat transfer enhancement than bottom transducers,
which transmit these waves in the direction perpendicular to it. Simul­
taneous activation of two opposite transducers, which are also centered
with platinum wire, showed lower cooling ability than using one of
them, probably due to each other’s neutralization effect. Of the three
ultrasound transducers installed on the bottom of the container, the one
which the wire was exactly exposed to the emitted waves from, per­
formed much more efficiently than the other two were not aligned with
the wire. Also, by studying the effect of distance between the platinum
Fig. 6. Schematic of an experimental rig with five ultrasonic transducers
located at different positions (UST: Ultrasound transducer).
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Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
wire and transducer surface, similar to the aforementioned study, they
obtained a higher value of heat transfer enhancement at a distance close
to the interface. Liu et al. [96], through an experimental research found
that the trend of heat transfer augmentation ratios against heights of
circular rod heater from the bottom of the liquid tank, where three ul­
trasound transducers were installed, is associated with heat flux of the
heater. At minimum heat flux where heat transfer condition was single
phase free convection regime, descending trend of enhancement ratio
with increasing height of heater was observed. Since experiments were
performed at greater distance from the liquid–gas interface relative to its
distance from the transducers surfaces, it can be said that the results are
in agreement with previous investigations.
Chen et al. [99] obtained different trend of heat transfer enhance­
ment with increase in height from the transducer and also justified their
results differently. They performed an experimental study on natural
convective heat transfer from a 6 mm diameter circular rod as a heater
located at the center of a thermostat tank filled with 80 mm-deep
degassed water. Three 40 kHz, 50 W ultrasound transducers were
attached at the tank bottom and experiments were performed at three
different height from their surface (9, 19, 22 mm). The average heat
transfer enhancement ratios at height of 9 and 22 mm have been higher
than that of 19 mm height from the transducer surface in their experi­
ments indicating different trend from previous studies since an
ascending trend with increase in height has not been observed. The heat
transfer augmentation was proved to depend on the distance of heater
from the ultrasonic transducers as well as wave amplitude formed
through the medium; they concluded that the effect of the test section
height from the transducer depends on whether the surface is in the
“node” or “antinode” region. Generally, heat transfer enhancement ratio
is slightly lower at “node” regions, whereas it can be relatively higher at
“anti-node” or “wavy” regions. They presented a figure of imaginary
ultrasonic wave amplitude as a sinusoidal function along the propaga­
tion direction, on which the heights of their test section from the
transducers, as well as examined heights by of Liu et al. [96] were
plotted (Fig. 7). They concluded that at heights which were located in
the “node” region, due to relative lower pressure fluctuations, the
enhancement caused by ultrasonic vibration was relatively lower;
whereas at heights located at “anti-node” or “wavy” region, the
enhancement was higher because of the higher pressure fluctuations.
Mongkolkitngam et al. [109] conducted a study on natural convective
heat transfer from a vertical cylinder with different angles and hori­
zontal distances to a triple-frequency ultrasound transducer (40, 80,
120 kHz). They found that the dependence of heat transfer enhancement
Fig. 7. Imaginary ultrasonic wave amplitude and test heights. Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [99].
M. Dehbani et al.
ratio on distance from the transducer is associated with sonication fre­
quency. Using 40 and 80 kHz (power ultrasound), the significant
decreasing trend of enhancement ratio with increasing the distance was
obtained due to the phenomenon of wave attenuation which lead to
decrease in wave intensity and less violent bubble implosion at higher
distances [119]. Using 120 kHz (high frequency ultrasound), some
decrease in enhancement ratio was observed, but not the same signifi­
cant as with the low frequency ultrasound, because in this range of
frequency, acoustic streaming is dominant, which cause global mixing
through the tank. Also, a decrease in heat transfer enhancement ratio
with increasing angle of the transmitted wave to the heater was ob­
tained; at the angle of zero degrees where was directly exposed to hitting
of the ultrasonic wave, heat transfer enhancement had the maximum
value.
In an interesting study, Chen et al. [101] compared the influence of
focused ultrasonic waves and conventional one on natural convective
heat transfer. For this purpose, first of all, they obtain an elliptical
equation for side walls of the ultrasonic tank based on two principles for
the generation of the acoustic focusing field of ultrasound. Then, one
heat transfer cavity with rectangular cross-section was fabricated as an
ordinary ultrasound tank and another in elliptical shape with the
focused ultrasonic field, both of which had similar sizes and were
equipped with 28 kHz ultrasonic transducer (Fig. 8). One main heater
was located at the center of the tanks as the heat source and two
auxiliary heaters were installed at corners to maintain the fluid tem­
perature constant. The intensity of the ultrasonic wave at the corre­
sponding positions of both cavities was measured using the sound
intensity meter. Their obtained results indicated that the elliptical cavity
could increase the intensity not only at the focus point but also at the
whole ultrasound field; consequently heat transfer enhancement in the
whole elliptical cavity was higher than that in the rectangular one. In the
next research of this group, for the elliptical cavity, boosted physical
effects of the cavitation collapse induced due to populated cavitation
cloud were observed visually [102].
Similar to free convective heat transfer systems, in researches on the
possibility of increasing the forced convective heat transfer using ul­
trasound propagation, different geometries of channel, through which
the fluid is flowing, have been considered including duct with square
cross-section, circular tube, rectangular canal with change in the di­
rection of fluid, etc. In addition, the number and installation location of
ultrasound transducers and the direction of propagation have been
different. Tam et al. [95] conducted an experimental research for eval­
uation of using different number and position of 40 kHz, 60 W ultra­
sound transducers in a forced convection system. Distilled water with
laminar flow was passing through a mini-tube with inner diameter of 4
mm, wall of which was under uniform heat flux. The effect of using 1–6
ultrasound transducers at different combination of position on heat
Fig. 8. Rectangular and elliptical cavity (UST: Ultrasound transducer).
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [101].
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Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
transfer enhancement was studied. Three of the transducers were placed
at the top of the tube and three at the bottom (Fig. 9). They used ul­
trasonic transducers in a novel and interesting way to vibrate the mini-
tube. The tube passed through the 4 mm V-slot cut of each transducer
head. No obvious difference between efficiency of top or bottom trans­
ducers has not been observed. The results showed that the maximum
heat transfer enhancement was associated with using two transducers
attached to the mini-tube wall. Forced convective heat transfer to water
flowing through a rectangular channel, in which heating surface and
ultrasound transducers are opposite, has been studied by Bulliard-Sauret
et al. [25]. Ultrasonic transducer surface was composed of eight 2 MHz
piezoelectric ceramics in a rectangular shape and heating surface of five
separate heating blocks, each of them consisted of two segments, copper
and stainless-steel blocks. The heating surface was in contact with
flowing water from the steel side and was insulated from the copper side.
Using PIV measurements and erosion tests, they proved no cavitation
involvement and concluded that up to 90% heat transfer augmentation
in the presence of ultrasonic vibration was due to induced micro­
streaming and acoustic cavitation was not involved. In later years, they
utilized this setup to compare high and low frequency and combined
effects, as noted in previous sections [29]. Viriyananon et al. [106]
studied the effect of the low frequency ultrasonic wave in a downward
direction on forced convection of water through the narrow duct with a
rectangular cross-section. Due to the downwards direction of ultrasound
propagations and thin thickness of flowing fluid (5 mm), an acoustic
cavitation cloud was induced in the near region beneath the transducer.
Maximum thermal performance (Nusselt number ratio over changes in
friction loss) about 1.5 was obtained for frequency of 33 kHz and Rey­
nolds number of 12500. Their results revealed that for heat transfer
enhancement in a pipe flow, Reynolds number and ultrasound frequency
are key parameters that must be considered. In investigations by Azimy
et al. [111,112], unlike previous studies on forced convection
enhancement in the presence of ultrasound in which transducers
attached to the wall, ultrasonic transducer was placed with direct con­
tact with the fluid that could increase the effectiveness of sonication.
By studying the sum of articles, it can be understood that choosing
the correct location of the ultrasound transducers and the position of the
test section relative to them, will help to make maximum use of ultra­
sonic vibrations to increase heat transfer rate. It seems that evaluating
the field of fluid motion using sophisticated methods like particle image
velocimetry (PIV), simultaneously with determining “node” and “wavy”
regions may result in finding accurate postion of transducer and the test
section relative to each other and consequently gaining the maximum
efficiency.
3.5. Flow rate in forced convective heat transfer
Lee and Choi carried out one of the first studies on forced convection
using ultrasonic vibration [86]. They studied the turbulence intensity of
CO2 saturated water flowing through the straight duct with a square
cross-section with and without sonication. In addition to obtaining
higher turbulence with gaseous cavitation compared to that with normal
ultrasound condition, they found that at the higher Reynolds numbers,
the turbulence intensity enhancement, which is induced by ultrasound,
decreases due to the lower rate of the ultrasonic energy emission to the
unit mass of fluid flow. Whereas breaking the viscous sub-layer and
thereby increase in the turbulence is caused by gaseous cavitation
collapse, it is expected to yield considerable heat transfer enhancement.
Similar results have been obtained using a miniaturized furnace tube
with constant wall heat flux through which water was flowing with
different Reynolds numbers in the range of the laminar regime. With
increasing Reynolds number, acoustic cavitation and acoustic streaming
induced by 20–33 kHz ultrasonic vibration were proved to be dimin­
ished in importance in relation to the turbulence of fluid bulk, unless
ultrasound frequency or power is high enough [92]. Azimy et al. [111]
came to the same results as the aforementioned researchers and
M. Dehbani et al.
Fig. 9. Schematic of the arrangment of ultrasonic transducers on the mini-tube (a) Full view, (b) View of a cut in the center of each transducer (UST: Ultra­
sound transducer).
demonstrated a decrease in the effectiveness of ultrasound with an in­
crease in flow rate.
However, not all researchers have obtained the same results
regarding the effect of flow rate on heat transfer enhancement ratio
using ultrasonic vibrations. Opposite results were reported by Bulliard-
Sauret et al. [25], when comparing the influence of low and high fre­
quency ultrasound (25 kHz, 2 MHz) at Reynolds numbers of 900–5500.
They concluded that the two different frequencies of ultrasound,
through different hydrodynamic effects, result in two different trends of
thermal enhancement and turbulence enhancement with respect to
Reynolds number modifications: decrease in the thermal effect of 2 MHz
ultrasound and increase in that of 25 kHz with increasing Reynolds
number. They attributed the strong action of low frequency ultrasound
at high Reynolds number to the disruptive effect of acoustic cavitation
bubble implosion on the boundary layer. As Reynolds number increases,
due to the reduction of the boundary layer thickness, destabilization of
the boundary layer by the collapse of cavitation bubbles get more effi­
cient, leading to a decrease in thermal resistance. Reduction of
ultrasound-induced turbulence with increasing Reynolds number using
2 MHz ultrasonic vibrations is a concept that they acknowledged needs
additional research. The results of another study by Viriyananon et al.
[106] revealed the thermal effect of emitted downward wave, with three
different low frequencies (25, 33 and 40 kHz), on water flowing in a
rectangular duct under turbulent regime with varying Reynolds number
of 10000–25000. Similarly, for all frequencies, they showed an increase
in thermal effect up to Reynolds number of 12,500 and a decrease in that
for higher values of Reynolds number. At the end points of the Reynolds
number range, the capability of ultrasound for heat transfer enhance­
ment disappeared and for Reynolds number of 25000, a negative effect
on heat exchange was observed, which is as a result of the direction of
ultrasound propagation. The high inertial forces at a high flow rate shift
the cavitation cloud induced by sonication under the transducer
downstream; Nusselt number in this condition gets lower than that
without ultrasound propagation.
Comparative study of increased heat transfer in entrance and fully
developed regions is a topic that has rarely been considered by re­
searchers. Tam et al. [95] studied the effect of 40 kHz ultrasound
transducers on forced convective heat transfer enhancement of distilled
water flowing through a mini-tube at different Reynolds number
(600–3000), however, the values of heat transfer enhancement ratio at
different Reynolds number have not been reported. Evaluation of heat
transfer enhancement using ultrasound in both entrance and fully-
developed regions was performed. They have reported the amount of
Nusselt numbers versus different Reynolds numbers indicating
ascending trend in both entrance and fully-developed region. They also
have presented the average percent of heat transfer enhancement at
11
Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
different Reynolds number indicating that, for all transducer combina­
tions, heat transfer enhancement in entrance region is higher than that
in fully-developed region because ultrasonic vibration could disturb the
thermal boundary layer of entrance region more easily than that of fully
developed due to its thinner thickness.
Due to the lack of comparative studies of thermal enhancement effect
of ultrasonic vibration at various flow regimes and different regions of
internal flow, it seems further research is needed.
4. Heat exchangers involving ultrasound
Among widely used industrial heat transfer-involved equipment,
heat exchangers, in which forced convection is the dominant mecha­
nism, have received a lot of attention and research interest to increase
their efficiencies. Heat exchangers are practical devices to facilitate heat
exchange between two fluids at various temperatures [120] and, ac­
cording to different points of view, can be divided into several categories
[121]. Heat exchangers are utilized in many engineering applications,
including heating, cooling, air conditioning, food processing, chemical
processing, thermal recycling, etc. [120]. One of the efficient techniques
for increasing heat exchanger performance which many researchers
have considered, especially in recent decades, is using ultrasound. One
of the first researches was made by Kurbanov and Melkumov [122].
They believe that the reason for the effect of ultrasound on increasing
performance of heat exchangers is the homogenization of velocity vec­
tors through the tube and decrease in surface tension of the liquid in the
vicinity of boundaries by acoustic waves. Also, the thermal resistance
created by the thin layer of lubricant stuck on the surface is removed by
ultrasound interference. Few studies conducted before 2010 suggest that
using ultrasound waves is a reliable and effective way to increase the
efficiency of heat exchangers [123,124]. Since 2010, many researchers
have studied the thermal enhancement of ultrasound on heat exchangers
from different aspects. Table 3 [125-136] sums up different examples,
reported in the research literature, of heat exchangers equipped with the
ultrasonic wave and of positive effects of ultrasound interference on
these systems.
Different types of heat exchangers, including double-pipe, shell-and-
tube, double-coils and shell and plate heat exchangers, which are
equipped with ultrasound transducers, have been studied. Different
shematic configuartion of ultrasound-equipped heat exchangers is
depicted in Figs. 10-14 . Legay et al. [128] compared the thermal per­
formances of double-pipe and shell-and-tube heat exchangers equipped
with 35 kHz ultrasound transducer. The double-pipe heat exchanger is
made of two concentric straight tubes and an ultrasonic transducer is
attached to the external one. Shell- and-tube heat exchanger has a one-
shell pass and two-tube passes and similarly, the ultrasound transducer
M. Dehbani et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273

UST

Fig. 10. Shematic of double-pipe heat exchanger whose outer tube is equipped with ultrasonic vibrations (UST: Ultrasound transducer).

Fig. 11. Shematic of double-pipe heat exchanger whose outer tube is equipped with eight immersion ultrasonic transducers (UST: Ultrasound transducer).

Fig. 12. Shematic of shell & tube heat exchanger whose shell is equipped with ultrasonic transducer (UST: Ultrasound transducer).

Fig. 13. Schematic of double-pipe heat exchanger whose inner tube is equipped with ultrasonic transducer (UST: Ultrasound transducer).

is attached to the shell side. In both heat exchangers, hot water was
flowing through the inner tube. Evaluation of enhancement factor for
both heat exchangers indicated slightly more thermal effect of ultra­
sound on the shell-and-tube one. They concluded that regardless of heat
exchanger configuration, using ultrasonic vibrations is an interesting
technique for increasing the performance of heat exchangers.
All studies, regardless of the frequency used, have shown the positive
influence of ultrasound on the increasing efficiency of heat exchangers.
Some studies have also compared two different frequencies of power
ultrasound, all of which show the greater effect of lower frequencies
[130,131]. Unlike other studies, Rahimi et al. [129] utilized high
frequency ultrasonic vibration (1.7 MHz) for the enhancement of a
double-pipe heat exchanger. They installed eight 1.7 MHz ultrasonic
piezoelectric transducers on the largest tube; therefore, cold fluid is in
direct contact with the ultrasound transducers (Fig. 11). They reported a
high temperature drop in the internal pipe while no significant thermal
effects occurred in the outer pipe. They also employed Weissler reaction
to study the cavitation intensity in internal and external sides of the heat
exchanger. The results indicated creation of much more cavitation
bubbles in the inner side in comparison with the outer one because 1.7
MHz ultrasonic wave transmitted across the internal tube wall, which is
related with the geometry of the system. These results could well justify

12
M. Dehbani et al.
Fig. 14. Schematic of a circular tube bonded to an ultrasonic transducer inside
the stagnant water (UST: Ultrasound transducer).
the higher temperature difference of the hot water flowing through the
inner side. Moreover, the temperature changes and in consequent heat
transfer rate using eight ultrasonic transducers was reported to be higher
than that using six transducers. It could be related with the higher
cavitation intensity which is characterized by higher I3− concentration.
In a novel investigation, Setareh et al. [133] equipped an inner tube
of a double-pipe with ultrasonic vibration using a bolted Langevin ul­
trasonic transducer (Fig. 13). Hot water was flowing through the inner
pipe and cold water through the annular gap. They obtained heat
transfer enhancement up to 60%. Most of the studies in this field have
been done using variable ultrasound power and have evaluated the ef­
fect of this factor on the enhancement capability of ultrasound. Their
results show a direct relationship between ultrasound power and
enhancement factor [131, 132, and 137].
In almost all studies regarding the effect of ultrasound on heat ex­
changers performance, varying flow rates as one of the key parameters
in heat exchanger design have been evaluated. Gondrexon et al. [125]
demonstrated that the heat transfer enhancement factor in a shell-and-
tube heat exchanger strongly depends on the flow rate of cold water
flowing through the shell side with a decreasing trend. However, no
dependency on the flow rate of hot water in the tube was observed.
Another group of researchers [133,136], found a reverse relationship
between the enhancement factor and flow rate of both cold and hot
water in a double-pipe heat exchanger. A similar decreasing tendency of
heat transfer enhancement factor with flow rate was obtained by Amiri
Delouei et al. [135] by investigation on heat exchange between the hot
fluid flowing through the smooth horizontal stainless steel tube and
stagnant water –ice mixture.
The most frequent working fluid which has been used in both sides of
heat exchangers has been water at different temperatures. Amiri Delouei
et al. [134] studied the effect of 28 kHz ultrasound vibrations on heat
exchange between Al2O3- water nanofluid flowing through the straight
tube and stagnant water–ice mixture which the tube located inside
(Fig. 14). The results indicated that ultrasound could improve the pos­
itive influence of the nanoparticles on heat transfer up to 11.37%.
Indeed, they evaluate the influence of nanoparticles and ultrasound on
the thermal performance of heat exchangers, simultaneously. They ob­
tained an increase in the Nusselt number ratio with the concentration of
nanoparticles and ultrasound power. As another important design
parameter of heat exchangers, they also studied pressure drop, as a
significant design parameter in heat exchangers, induced inside the fluid
using ultrasound. They concluded that with ultrasound interference, the
pressure drop reduced up to 15.27%. Another research on the evaluation
of pressure drop and friction factor of water flow has been conducted by
Tuntarungsri et al. [137]. A double-coils and shell heat exchanger with
three different inlet configurations and ultrasound interference was
investigated at a varying flow rate of 0.25–0.75 L.s− 1 . According to
them, the effect of ultrasound on pressure drop reduction is associated
with the flow rate of working fluid on the shell side. 86.6% reduction in
pressure drop, in the heat exchanger which was equipped with several
ultrasound transducers compared to commercial chillers. However,
13
Applied Thermal Engineering 208 (2022) 118273
experimental studies dealing with pressure drop in heat exchangers
involving ultrasound remain scarce and opposite as reported in the
literature. Slight increase in pressure drop of a turbulent flow through a
tube is reported Treegosol et al. [138]. Accordingly, it can be said that
up to date, the influence of ultrasound on the pressure drop is not clearly
well established and future investigation is essential due to great
importance of pressure drop in heat exchanger performance.
In addition to the direct effect of ultrasound on convective heat
transfer between the flowing fluid and solid surface of the tube, it could
improve heat exchangers’ performance by reducing fouling. The
acoustic cavitation and its subsequent physical effects are important and
effective phenomena that cause the antifouling process in heat transfer
equipment with ultrasonic treatment. A remarkable antifouling effect of
28–40 kHz ultrasound was observed from experimental results of the
heat exchange process in double-pipe heat exchanger by Chen et al.
[131]. Lower fouling resistance, or in other words, more antifouling
effect of ultrasound, was observed at a lower frequency and water
hardness. However, a contrary result was obtained for ultrasonic power;
higher ultrasound power caused increased antifouling rate. In another
research, the antifouling effect of 20.7 kHz ultrasonic vibrations on a
double-tube heat exchanger was investigated using dynamic fouling
monitor system. They concluded that increase in the ultrasonic power
resulted in remarkably decrease in fouling resistance with an efficiency
up to 83.7%. [132].
Therefore, the simultaneous effect on increasing the heat transfer
and reducing fouling make ultrasound a promising and efficient method
to increase the performance of heat exchangers. However, due to great
importance of pressure drop in heat excahngers, it is essential to furthure
investigation to reveal the effect of ultrasound on this parameter.
5. Challenges and future perspective
Despite the fact that since the introduction of ultrasound as one of
the active techniques to increase heat transfer, especially in the last
decade, a lot of studies have been done in this field by evaluating the
effects of various contributing factors, there are still some research gaps
in this area. Although numerous research have been performed on the
effect of flow rate as a contributing factor on forced convective heat
transfer enhancement induced by ultrasound, the results are still chal­
lenging and need further investigation. Due to the differences in hy­
drodynamic behavior and thermal boundary layer of the fluid flow in
laminar and turbulent regims, as well as in entrance and fully-developed
regions, it is essential to evaluate the effect of increased flow rate,
considering these differences, and at the same time verify the results
with evaluation of ultrasound-induced disturbance of thermal boundary
layer and fluid flow using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and laser-
induced fluorescence (LIF). Moreover, the most commonly examined
working fluids have been liquids, especially water, and there is a lack of
study on the thermal enhancement effect of ultrasound in gaseous sys­
tems regarding to their numerous industrial applications. Almost all of
the studies on the improvement of heat exchanger performance using
ultrasonic vibrations have been performed using laboratory scales.
Given that by comprehensive laboratory research on the thermal
enhancement effects of ultrasound, this technique has been proven as a
reliable and efficient method to increase heat transfer it seems that
another research gap is scale up and the comprehensive study on
ultrasound-assisted heat transfer systems on a pilot scale to overcome
the challenges and move toward industrialization in the near future.
6. Conclusion
During the last decades, active techniques have been developed as
powerful platforms to enhance heat transfer and, consequently, increase
thermal system efficiency. As one of the highly efficient methods in this
group, the ultrasound irradiation technique has emerged as an inter­
esting way to improve heat transfer processes, especially convective
M. Dehbani et al.
heat transfer. Depending on the frequency of irradiated ultrasonic wave,
various phenomena including acoustic cavitation and acoustic stream­
ing induce through the medium, both of them increase turbulence and
consequently result in heat transfer enhancement. In addition to fre­
quency, this review paper have discussed the effect of other contributing
factors on heat transfer enhancement using ultrasound, such as ultra­
sound power, geometry of the heat transfer system, propagation me­
dium and flow rate in forced convection. Also, in this paper, an overview
of research literature regarding the effects of ultrasound on heat
exchanger performance was performed, indicating the effect of ultra­
sound not only on increasing convective heat transfer but also on
reducing fouling that leads to further improvement of heat exchanger
performance.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful for financial support of Kermanshah Uni­
versity of Medical Science.
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