KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA (PROTISTA) Kingdom protoctista

includes a variety of eukaryotic organisms. These living organisms are

similar to the ancestor of modern fungi, plants and animals. Most of them
are unicellular but some are multicellular living organisms are also
included in this group. .According to mode of nutrition they are
autotrophic (algae, euglena), heterotrophic (Amoeba, paramecium),
Parasitic (plasmodium cause malaria, Trypanosoma cause sleeping
sickness), predatory or absorptive.
THE EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP: The diversity among
Protoctista shows that protoctist kingdom belongs to polyphyletic group
of organisms. It means they do not share a single common ancestor.
These organisms are linked between prokaryotic and the more modern
eukaryotes like plants and animals
MAJOR GROUPS OF PROTOCTISTA: Protoctista contain following
three major groups, which were placed separately in different groups, but now
under one group or kingdom protoctista.
PLANT-LIKE PROTOCTISTS ALGAE
FUNGI-LIKE PROTOCTISTS PRIMITIVE FUNGI OR
OOMYCOTA
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTOCTISTA PROTOZOA
ALGAE ( PLANT LIKE PROTOCTISTS): Algae are simple living
organisms, usually grow in water, some time live in moist environment i.e.,
soil trees and rocks, their body is called thallus and they can manufacture own
food, due to the presence of chlorophyll. They are unicellular as well as
multicellular some time colonial. Algae are different from plants by lacking
root, stem , leaves, and vascular tissues.
PLANT LIKE CHARACTERS OF ALGAE:
i. Cell wall has same chemical composition as seen in plants cell
wall.
ii.Presence of one or more vacuole in cytoplasm.
iii.Photosynthetic pigments are found in chloroplast.
iv.Reproduction is sexual show alternation of generation
(Isomorphic)
The scientific study of algae is called phycology.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE:
Based on photosynthetic pigments algae divide in following groups
ULVA: (SEA LETTUCE): Ulva belongs to the group Chlorophyta (Green
algae). It is found in marine water between high and low tides. It is found
attached to rocky edge of Manora and Kiamari of Karachi coast.
STRUCTURE: It has a very simple body, called thallus. The thallus consists
of many broad sheath-like branches, called blades. From the lower region of
the thallus, a colourless structure is developed, known as holdfast. It is 30
cms. Long. It consists of many threads and helps in the attachment of thallus
to any rock or stone.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ULVA: The body of Ulva has two layers of
cells. The outer layer is protective and remains in contact with water, while
the inner layer does not remain in contact with water. The body of Ulva is
composed of many cells. Each cell of Ulva is elongated. It is covered by cell
wall. In the cell cytoplasm, a nucleus and a single girdle-shaped chloroplast is
present.
LIFE CYCLE OF ULVA: The life cycle of Ulva has two stages.
i- Gametophyte Stage ii- Sporophyte Stage
Due to presence of two stages the whole process is known as alternation of
generation. In Ulva gametophyte and sporophyte are similar in structure, there
for this type of alternation of generation is known as Isomorphic alternation of
generation.
The life cycle of Ulva has two types of reproductions.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: This reproduction is found in the
sporophyte of ulva which is diploid (2n) and contains 26 chromosomes.
Sporophyte of ulva produces quadri-flagellated zoospores in all cells of
thallus by meiosis. 8 to 16 zoospores are formed in a single cell. These
zoospores contain 13 chromosomes (n). Zoospores production continues until
all the cells of thallus are used. These zoospores swim in water, lose their
flagella and grow into gametophyte of ulva with 13 chromosomes.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: This type of reproduction take place in
gametophyte of ulva. These gametophytes produce biflagellated gametes
which contain 13 chromosomes, and the fusion of gametes take place in
water. Sexual reproduction is isogamous because gametes are
physiologically and morphologically similar. After fusion Quadri
flagellated zygote is formed. Zygote swims in water, loses its flagella and
grows into sporophyte of ulva containing 26 chromosomes.
ISOMORPHIC ALTERNATION OF GENERATION: In Ulva
haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte are similar in morphology
but differ in chromosomes number, there for apparently both are same
and show isomorphic alternation of generation.
FUNGI LIKE PROTOCTISTA:
These organisms apparently look like fungi.
The body is called mycelium contain hyphae.
They mostly have centriole and cell wall is composed of
cellulose.
They are heterotrophic absorptive feeder
They reproduce by spores
Mostly are nonmotile but some show movement at some stages
of life.
Major groups are Slime molds and Water molds.
SLIME MOLD (MYXOMYCOTA): Slime molds is a creeping
mass of living substances. It looks like a giant amoeba and covers
several square centimeters. It has the consistency of egg white and
the colour is yellow. It creeps on forest floor and obtains its food
i.e., bacteria. This amoeboid stage of slime mould is known as
“Plasmodium”. It consists of cytoplasm in which are embedded
many nuclei, food vacuole and undigested food.
LIFE CYCLE OF SLIME MOULD: The life cycle of slime
mould shows two types of reproduction:
1-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 2- SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
1-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
In slime mold, asexual reproduction takes place by fruiting body or
sporangia. These are sporangia are produced on produced on a
small stalk, known as sporangiophore. Sporangia are small and
golf-ball like. They may be of different colours. In sporangia,
many spores are produced by meiosis, so these are haploid spores.
Spores are released from sporangia and dispersed by wind or rain
to different places. Each spore has a single nucleus, surrounded by
cytoplasm and a thick protective wall. The fruiting stages of slime
mould are plant like.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
When the spore of slime mould germinates, it produces one or
more tiny cells. Each cell has a pair of flagella. These flagellated
cells may function as sex cells or gamete. These are isogametes.
Gametes fuse to form a small amoeba-like structure, having two
nuclei, and grow to form a giant amoeba again.
WATER MOLDS (OOMYCETES):
PHYTOPHTHORA INFASTANS: Phytophthora is a fungi like
organism, but due to certain characters, it is included in kingdom
Protoctista. It causes a disease in potato called late blight. It also causes
tuber rot disease in underground part of potato.
Structure: The body of Phytophthora is known as mycelium. It is
composed of many thread-like structures, called hyphae. The hyphae are
endophytic branched aseptate coenocytic hyaline and nodulated. In the
mycelium, cytoplasm is present which has many nuclei. Due to
unseptate and multinucleated condition. It is called coenocytic
mycelium. The mycelium is intercellular or intracellular and absorbs food
material from cells by special structures called haustoria. In the
cytoplasm, oil globules are also present to store food material.
REPRODUCTION: In Phytophthora, there are two-types of reproduction:
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: This reproduction takes place by
biflagellated zoospores which are produced in reproductive organs, called
sporangia. These zoospores enter the leaves of potato plants through stomata.
Inside the leaves, these zoospores enter the leaves of potato plants through
stomata. Inside the leaves, these zoospores produce hyphae which penetrate
among the cells of potato leaves.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: In phytophthora, sexual reproduction is
oogamous. The female sex organs oogonium and male organ is antheridium.
Male and Female gametes are produced in respective gametangia. The diploid
nucleus of zygote divides by mitosis to form many nuclei. The fusion of
cytoplasm is called plasmogamy and fusion of nuclei is called Karyogamy.
ANIMAL LIKE PROTOCTISTA:
PHYLUM PROTOZOA: They are unicellular animal-like organisms with
ingestive heterotrophic nutrition. They are free-living or parasitic. They have
various methods of locomotion. Examples: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium,
Acineta, Plasmodium etc. About 30,000 species of protozoa are divided into five
classes, which differ in their means of locomotion.
CLASS FLAGELLATA (MASTIGOPHORA) e.g., Euglena, Volvox, Trypanosoma,
Leishmania
CLASS SARCODINA (RHIZOPODA) e.g., Amoeba, Entamoeba, Radiolarian
Ooze, Globigerina Ooze.
CLASS CILIATA (CILIOPHORA) e.g., Paramecium, Vorticella, Stentor, Opalina,
Balantidium, Nyctotherus
4. CLASS SUCTORIA e.g., Acineta, Ephilota, Podophyra
5.CLASS SPOROZOA (APICOMPLEXA) e.g., Plasmodium, Coccidia, Moncystis.
 CLASS FLAGELLATA: (MESTIGOPHORA): Locomotion
is taking place by long thread like structures, called flagella. This
class has two sub-classes:
SUB- CLASS- EUGLENOPHYTA: Some animals contain
chlorophyll (Phytoflagellata) manufacture their own food
material, live in fresh water or marine water, reproduction
asexual.e.g., Euglena, Volvox
SUB-CLASS ZOOMASTIGONIA: Some animals are without
chlorophyll(zooflagellata) or parasitic flagellates e.g.
Trypanosoma, (causes sleeping sickness)
CLASS SARCODINA: (RHIZOPODA): Their body wall is soft,
due to which the shape of the body can be changed. In some, the
body is covered by a shell e.g., Globigerina. From their outer
surface of the body, pseudopodia are produced which help in
locomotion and to capture the food. This type of locomotion is also
called amoeboid locomotion.
EXAMPLES: Amoeba, Entamoeba histolytica, Shelled Sarcodins
Radiolarian and Globigerina Ooze Are studied by oil prospectors
because the presence of certain species gives clues to possible
petroleum deposits.
 CLASS CILIATA (CILIOPHORA) Locomotion is taking place by
numerous hairs like cilia found on the surface, also help in getting
food. They have mouth, through which the food enters the body.
Sexual reproduction is taking place by conjugation. e.g., Paramecium,
Stentor, Vorticella, Opalina, Balantidium and Nyctotherus found in
rectum of frog.
CLASS SUCTORIA: The young animals of this class have cilia for
locomotion. The adult animals do not have cilia and they are attached
to any solid object by the help of a long rod-like structure.
Heterotrophic predators. Reproduction occurs by budding process,
binary fission and sexual by conjugation. Examples: Acineta, Ephilota,
Podphyra
CLASS SPOROZOA (APICOMPLEXA): The animals of this class are
exclusive parasite. They do not produce special organs for locomotion.
But some time shows amoeboid locomotion due to pseudopodia
Reproduction takes place by asexual (fission) and sexual method
(syngamy). Examples: Plasmodium causes malaria in man, Eimeria
causes Coccidiasis in poultry. Monocystis lives in the seminal vesicles of
earthworm.
IMPORTANCE OF PROTOCTISTA:
1.PATHOGENIC: Many members are pathogenic which cause diseases.
Plasmodium causes malaria.
Entamoeba histolytica causes dysentery
Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness
Leishmania causes leishmaniasis
Phytophthora infestans causes late blight of potato.
2.FERTILIZERS: Brown seaweeds are rich in Potassium and are used
as fertilizers.
3.FOOD: An alga, chlorella is used as food for fishes. Red seaweed is
cooked as food in many countries.
4.ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY: Algae removes CO2 from the
environment during photosynthesis and supplies O2 to the environment.
5.BIOTECHNOLOGY: An important alga, Dunaliella salina
accumulates large amount of an orange red carotenoid, β- carotene.
Which is used to colour products such as margarine, noodles and soft
drinks.
FUNGI: Fungi is a successful group of organisms more than
thousands of species are found. On one side is unicellular yeast on
other hand multicellular large toad stool, Puffballs are found. Fungi
live in aquatic as well as terrestrial environment but more
commonly found in moist environment. The study of fungi is
called Mycology.
GENERAL CHARACHTERISTICS: Fungi are multicellular
(except yeast) eukaryotic non-chlorophyllous absorptive
heterotrophs. They may be saprotrophs, parasites, mutualists, and
predators.
Structure: The body of fungi is called thallus. Thallus consist of
many thread-like structures known as hyphae (sing hypha).
Hundreds of hyphae unit, to form a network called Mycelium.
(I)HYPHAE: These are filament-like structures which may be
septate or aseptate and coenocytic. Hypha wall is composed of
chitin and fungal cellulose.
(II) MYCELIUM: The collection of hyphae is called
mycelium.
(III) COENOCYTIC: Fungi have many nuclei in their
cytoplasm and this condition is known as coenocytic. Nuclei of
fungi considered as haploid (n).
(IV) RHIZOIDS: Saprotrophic fungi have special
structure called rhizoids which penetrate in organic
material and perform absorption.
(V) HAUSTORIA: Parasitic fungi have another type of
hyphae, known as haustoria which penetrate the body of
host for absorption structures.
DIVERSITY AMONG FUNGI (CLASSIFICATION OF) FUNGI:
Fungi are classified into four divisions or phyla.
Zygomycota (2) Ascomycota (3) Basidiomycota (4) Deuteromycota
(1) Zygomycota:
i. It is the smallest and simplest division of fungi with only 600 named
species.
ii. It has coenocytic mycelium i.e. it is multinucleate and unseptate.
iii. Asexual reproduction takes place by haploid spores which are
produced in sporangia.
iv. Sexual reproduction take place by conjugation.
• v. Fusion of hyphae takes place in which plasmogamy and
karyogamy occur.
• vi. A reproductive structure, zygospore is produced at the point of
fusion.
• vii. Zygospore remains dormant for a few days.
viii. Zygospore produces promycelium which contain sporangium
on terminal end.
ix. Sporangium produces haploid spores
The group is named after the production of temporarily dormant
structure known as Zygospore
For Example: Mucor, Rhizopus, (Bread mold)
B) DIVISION BASIDIOMYCOTA:
i- Hyphae of fungi are septate.
ii- Asexual reproduction takes place by conidiospores or fragmentation.
iii- During sexual reproduction male reproductive structure, antheridia,
and female structure, oogonia are produced.
iv-After fusion of antheridia and oogonia, dikaryotic hyphae are
produced.
v-Dikaryotic hyphae produce a fruiting body, called basidiocarp
vi-Karyogamy take place in a structure called basidium.
vii-Diploid nucleus of basidium produces four basidiospores.
Example: Mushroom, Toad stool, Bracket fungi, Button
mushroom, Puff balls
C)DIVISION ASCOMYCOTA:
i- Hyphae of fungi are septate.
ii- Asexual reproduction takes place by budding or conidiospores.
iii- During sexual reproduction male structure, antheridium and female structure,
ascogonium are produced.
iv-After fusion of antheridia and ascogonium, fruiting body ascocarp is
produced.
Ascocarps are of three types such as Cleistothecium, perithecium and
apothecium.
Karyogamy takes place in a structure known as ascus. Diploid nucleus of ascus
produces eight ascospores. Example: Yeast, Mildew, Cup Fungi, Truffles.

•
D) DIVISION DEUTEROMYCOTA:
i- Hyphae of fungi may be septate or unseptate.
ii-Asexual reproduction is by conidiospore or budding.
iii-Sexual reproduction is absent.
iv-Genetics recombination take place by parasexuality.
Example: Penicillium, Aspergillus.
LIFE CYCLE OF ZYGOMYCOTA: (Mucor) e.g., MUCOR
OR RHIZOPUS (BREAD MOLD): Mucor is saprophytic fungi.
They grow on dead organic food substances, such as bread, rotten
fruits etc. Mucor is coprophilous (grow on dung). It releases a
musty or moldy smell.
STRUCTURE: The body is called mycelium. It consists of many
thread-like structures, called hyphae. The hyphae contain
cytoplasm, many nuclei and oil globules. Due to the presence of
many nuclei and unseptate condition, the mycelium is called
Coenocytic mycelium.
TYPES OF HYPHAE:
There are following three types of hyphae
i. Rhizoidal Hyphae:
Hyphae penetrate the tissues of the substratum and behave like root
fixed and absorb nutrients.
ii.Stolon Hyphae
It is a type behave like prostrate stem
iii.Sporangiophore Hyphae
It is a kind of erect hyphae terminated by sporangium.
Economic Importance Of Fungi:
Useful Fungi:
i.Food: Many kinds of edible fungi are the source of nourishing
and delicious food dishes
e.g. Mushroom; Yeast are utilized in baking industry.
ii. Medicine: Fungi have explored a new field of medicine by
producing antibiotics like Penicillin, Chloromycetin, Neomycin
and Terramycin.
iii.Soil Fertility: they maintain soil fertility by decomposing the
dead organic material e.g., Saprophytic Fungi.
iv.Decomposition of dead bodies: Fungi obtain their food by
decomposition of dead bodies of plants and animals, so they clean our
environment and are termed cleaners or recyclers.
v. Biological Control: Fungi helps in biological control of weeds and
pests. Some soil fungi trap nematodes by using hyphae to penetrate in
their body due to this predatory nature fungi reduces the severity of plant
diseases caused by nematodes.
vi. Fungi and Biotechnology: Fungi is a eukaryotic organism help in
biotechnological research and application and also form large amount of
useful biochemicals. Such as vitamins, hormones, and antibiotics.
vii. Genetic Research: Neurospora (orange bread mold), yeast are the
group of fungi use in genetic research.
Harmful Fungi:
i.Food Spoilage: Fungi are mainly saprophytes. They cause
tremendous amount of spoilage of food stuff.
ii. Spoilage of Organic material: Many Fungi spoil leather goods,
wool, books, timber, cotton etc.
iii. Plant disease: Fungi cause different diseases to plants, destroy
agricultural crop, fruits, and ornaments. Some diseases are Rust,
Smut, Downy and Powdery Mildew.
Human diseases: Fungi cause several diseases in human being
e.g, Aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus. It is ear, lungs disease
Moniliasis caused by Monilia, it is skin, mouth gum diseases.
1.Candida albicans: Yeast causes oral and vaginal thrush.
2. Aspergillus fumigatus: Causes aspergillosis in person with
defective immune system may cause death.
3. Aspergillus flavus: Some strain produced one of the most
carcinogenic (cancer causing) Mycotoxin i.e. Aflatoxin.
Aspergillus contaminates improperly stored grains such as Peanut,
corn, etc.
4. Histoplasma capsulatum: Causes Histoplasmosis, a serious
infection of Lungs caused by inhaling spores found in soil
contaminated with birds' faeces. It may be fatal.
5. Purple ergot: Contaminates rye flour causes ergotism by eating bread
made from it. Poisonous material in the ergot causes nervous spasm,
convulsion, psychotic delusion and even gangrene
Plant Diseases: Fungi produce tremendous Economic loss by producing
different diseases in plants, animals and human beings. Powdery Mildew on
grape, rose, wheat. Ergot of rye, Red rot of sugar can, Potato wilt, Cotton
root rot, Apple scab, Brown rot of peaches, Apricot etc.
FUNGAL MUTUALISM
Lichen: The condition in which algae and fungi live together in the form of a
group, these are called Lichens, such as Nostoc, Cladophora. In this condition
Fungus (Ascomycetes, or Basidiomycetes) protect the algae from strong light
and desiccation by absorbing moisture, while fungi itself gets food from algae.
Lichens vary in colour, shape, overall appearance, growth form. They are
ecologically very important as Bio indicators of air pollution
Mycorrhiza: This fungus lives with roots of higher plants. Fungi
absorb certain chemical substances from soil, such as copper,
phosphorus and zinc etc. These substances are used by plants and
fungi get some food from plant body. In such manner, both are
useful to each other.
Mycorrhizal fungi are of two types.
a. Endomycorrhizal fungi: These fungi live inside the root cells
of plant e.g., Orchids.
b. Ectomycorrhizal fungi: These fungi live on the outer surface
of root and around the cells. They do not enter the root cells e.g.,
Pinus root.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI: In fungi asexual
reproduction take place by following methods.
i. Fragmentation ii- Budding iii- Spore formation iv-Conidia
i. Fragmentation: In this process, the mycelium of fungus may be
broken into small pieces due to certain reasons. These pieces are
known as Fragments. These fragments can develop into new
mycelium of fungus and process is called fragmentation.
ii.Budding : In some fungi for example yeast an outgrowth is
produced from the parent cell. During the process parent nucleus
divide into two one transfer into bud, after increasing in size bud is
separated from parent cell and grow independently.
 .Spore formation: It is a common process in fungi. In this
iii

process, small reproductive bodies called spores are produced. The

spores are formed in reproductive organs, known as sporangia.
These spores become free after maturation. The spores can
germinate into new mycelium. In some fungi, spores have flagella,
such spores are called zoospores. These are produced in
zoosporangia. After maturation, each zoospore can germinate into
a new mycelium.
iv. Conidia : In some fungi, reproductive bodies are produced on
special branches known as conidiophores. These branches produce
small, rounded bodies in chain-like manner,
called conidia. These conidia are not
formed inside the reproductive organs.
Conidia are separated from the branches,
then they can germinate into
new mycelium during favourable
conditions.
•
• KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA (PROTISTA)
• The diversity among Protoctista shows that protoctist kingdom
belongs to polyphyletic group of organisms. It means they do not
share a single common ancestor. Here we have divided them into three groups.
• PLANT-LIKE PROTOCTISTS ALGAE
• FUNGI-LIKE PROTOCTISTS PRIMITIVE FUNGI OR OOMYCOTA
• ANIMAL-LIKE PROTOCTISTA PROTOZOA
• ALGAE ( PLANT LIKE PROTOCTISTS):
• Algae are simple living organisms, usually grow in water, their body is called
thallus and they can manufacture own food, due to the presence of chlorophyll.
• In algae, there are two important organisms.
I- CHLORELLA II- ULVA
• CHLORELLA:
• Chlorella belongs to green algae i.e. Class- Chlorophyceae.
• It grows in fresh water, ponds, pools, ditches etc.
• STRUCTURE:
• It has a single celled body, but it may now grow in the form of groups. The cells
are small and spherical. Each cell is covered by a thin cell wall, composed of
cellulose. In the cell, cytoplasm is present. In the centre of the cell, nucleus is
present. Each cell is also contains a cup-shaped chloroplast. In the chloroplast
pyrenoid is present or some times absent. Pyrenoid is a starch forming body. In
Chlorella, flagella are absent i.e. it is non-motile.
REPRODUCTION:
Chlorella undergoes asexual reproduction only.
It takes place by aplanospores. At the time of reproduction,
the cytoplasm of cell divides into 8 or 16 small bodies.
Each body is covered by a wall, it is called aplanospores. In this way, 8 or 16
aplanospores are formed in a cell.
After maturation of aplanospores, the cell wall ruptures and all aplanospores
become free. Each aplanospores, can develop into a new cell.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CHLORELLA:
i- Chlorella cells have very high food value. They contain
about 50% protein, 20% carbohydrates and 20% fats, amino acids
and vitamins, so it can be an alternate source of food.
ii- From chlorella, an important antibiotic, chlorellin has been isolated. It is useful
to control bacterial diseases.
iii- Chlorella is used in important physiological experiments, because it is easily
cultivated. It is used in research on photosynthesis and respiration.
ULVA(SEA LETTUCE):
Ulva belongs to the group Chlorophyta (Green algae).
It is found in marine water between high and low tides.
It is found attached to rocky edge of Manora and Kiamari of Karachi coast.
STRUCTURE:
It has a very simple body, called thallus.
The thallus consists of many broad sheath-like
branches, called blades. From the lower region
of the thallus, a colourless structure is developed,
known as holdfast. It is 30 cms. Long.
It consists of many threads and helps in
the attachment of thallus to any rock or stone.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ULVA:
The body of Ulva has two layers of cells. The outer layer is
protective and remains in contact with water, while the
inner layer does not remain in contact with water.
The body of Ulva is composed of many cells. Each cell of Ulva is elongated. It is
covered by cell wall. In the cell cytoplasm, a nucleus and a single girdle-shaped
chloroplast is present.
• LIFE CYCLE OF ULVA:
• The life cycle of Ulva has two stages.
i- Gametophyte Stage ii- Sporophyte Stage
Due to presence of two stages the whole process is known as alternation of generation. In Ulva
gametophyte and sporophyte are similar in structure, there for this type of alternation of
generation is known as Isomorphic alternation of generation.
The life cycle is described as follows.
1. Gametophyte Stage:
In this stage, sexual reproduction takes place, and two types of male and female gametes are
formed. The male and female plants are separate but similar in structure. The male Ulva
produces male gametes and female Ulva produces female gametes. These gametes are similar in
their external structure, so they are called isogametes. These isogametes fused together in water
and form diploid zygote. The zygote develops into another stage, called sporophyte stage.

2. Sporophyte Stage:
Sporophyte of Ulva is developed by the germination of zygote. The sporophyte resembles
gametophyte in structure. The sporophyte produces zoospores by asexual reproduction. In the
formation of zoospores, meiosis takes place due to which they become haploid. The zoospores
become free after maturation. Half of the zoospores form male and half produce female
gametophyte of Ulva. In this way life cycle is completed.
ISOMORPHIC ALTERNATION OF GENERATION:
In Ulva haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte are similar in
morphology but differ in chromosomes number, there for apparently both
are same and show isomorphic alternation of generation.
EUGLENA:
It is a typical protoctist have both animal-like and
plant-like characteristics.
Animal like Characters:
A very long flagellum help in locomotion.
A photoreceptor help in detecting light also
known as eye spot (stigma).
In absence of light get food from others.
Plant like Characters:
Body covered with pellicle made up of protein and behave like cell wall.
They contain chloroplast so in presence of light manufacture food by the process of
photosynthesis and known as autotroph.
Pyrenoid is found in chloroplast, which store starch.
SLIME MOLD (PLASMODIUM):
Slime molds are fungi like organisms and due to certain
characters, these are included in kingdom Protoctista.
• Structure:
• Slime mold: consists of a mass of cytoplasm which is covered by plasma
membrane and a slimy layer. Cell wall is absent; the naked cytoplasm contains
many nuclei and looks like egg white. The cytoplasm consists of outer ectoplasm
and inner endoplasm parts.
• Slime mold is also called plasmodium. It grows on moist and shady places and
produces many pseudopodia, which help in amoeboid movement. It takes
bacteria and other food particles by the help of pseudopodia. It also contains
food vacuoles in the cytoplasm.
• Asexual Reproduction:
• In slime mold, asexual reproduction takes place by sporangia,
in sporangia; many spores are produced by meiosis,
so, these are haploid spores.
Sexual Reproduction: The flagellated cells,
which are produced from spores are
function as gametes (sex cells) and
fuse in pairs. This is true sexual reproduction,
even though the gametes appear to be
identical in structure. Cells resulting
from the fusion of gametes become
amoeboid and form a new plasmodium.
WATER MOLDS (OOMYCOTES):
PHYTOPHTHORA INFASTANS:
Phytophthora is a fungi like organism, but due to certain characters, it is included in
kingdom Protoctista. It causes a disease in potato and tomato, called late-blight. It
also causes tuber rot disease in underground part of potato.
• Structure: The body of Phytophthora is known as mycelium.
• It is composed of many thread-like structures, called hyphae.
• The hyphae are endophytic branched aseptate
• coenocytic hyaline and nodulated. In the mycelium,
• cytoplasm is present which has many nuclei.
• Due to unseptate and multinucleated condition.
• It is called coenocytic mycelium. The mycelium is intercellular or intracellular and
absorbs food material from cells by special structures called haustoria. In the
cytoplasm, oil globules are also present to store food material.
• SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE:
• The symptoms of the disease appear both upon
aerial and underground parts. The first sign of
the disease is the appearance of small brown patches on leaves which, in cloudy
and muggy weather, rapidly increase to the whole surface.
• Due to late blight disease, many black or bluish spots are produced on leaves in
late season after flower formation. After that, the whole plant and tubers of
potato are also affected.
REPRODUCTION:
In Phytophthora, there are two-types of reproduction:
i- ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
ii- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Asexual Reproduction: This reproduction
takes place by zoospores which are produced
in reproductive organs, called sporangia.
• Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction
is oogamous. The female sex organs
oogonium and male organ is antheridium.
Male and Female gametes are produced in
respective gametangia. The diploid nucleus
of zygote divides by mitosis to
form many nuclei.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS:
The most important species phytophthora infestans causes
the Late blight of potato. This is havoc to potato crop and
causes sufficient damage. The symptoms of the disease appear both upon aerial
and underground parts. The whole plant becomes blighted in severe conditions.
Dry and wet rots damage the tubers. The tuber due to disease become smaller in
size and show dry rot with rusty brown markings in the flesh and brown
depressions at certain places, in the skin.
ANIMAL LIKE PROTOCTISTA:
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
i)The members of this phylum are unicellular or acellular, microscopic, body is regular or irregular in shape, live singly or in colony.
Protozoa are aquatic live in fresh, brackish and marine water some are endoparasite.
ii) Protoplasm divides into ectoplasm and endoplasm, Nucleus is prominent one, two or many in number( Multinucleated)
iii)They are autotrophic as well as heterotrophic in mode of nutrition, respire through diffusion, locomote with help of Pseudopodia,
flagella and cilia
iv) Reproduce asexually by fission and spore formation sexually by gametes
and conjugation
Examples: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, Acineta, Plasmodium etc.
About 30,000 species of protozoa are divided into five classes,
which differ in their means of locomotion.
1. CLASS FLAGELLATA (MASTIGOPHORA) e.g. Euglena, Volvox, Trypanosoma,
Leishmania
2. CLASS SARCODINA (RHIZOPODA) e.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba, Radiolarian Ooze,
Globigerina Ooze.
3. CLASS CILIATA (CILIOPHORA) e.g. Paramecium, Vorticella, Stentor,
Opalina, Balantidium, Nyctotherus
4. CLASS SUCTORIA e.g. Acineta, Ephilota, Podophyra
5. CLASS SPOROZOA (APICOMPLEXA) e.g. Plasmodium, Coccidia, Moncystis.
1. CLASS FLAGELLATA: (MESTIGOPHORA):
I. The body is covered with pellicle
II. Locomotion is taking place by long thread like structures, called flagella.
III.Some animals contain chlorophyll (Phytoflagellata) manufacture their own food
material, e.g. Euglena, Volvox
IV.Some animals are without chlorophyll(zooflagellata) or parasitic flagellates e.g.
Trypanosoma , Leishmania.
V. Parasitic flagellates do not bear food vacuole and osmoregulatory vacuoles.
VI.Asexual reproduction is by binary fission.
VII.Sexual reproduction is taking place by gametes( isogamy or anisogamy)
2. CLASS SARCODINA: (RHIZOPODA):
i) Their body wall is soft, due to which the shape of
the body can be changed. In some, the body is
covered by a shell e.g. Globigerina.
ii) From their outer surface of the body, pseudopodia are
produced which help in locomotion and to capture the food.
This type of locomotion is also called amoeboid locomotion.
iii)The protoplasm is divided into ectoplasm and endoplasm.
iv) Nucleus is one or more.
v) Excretion takes place by osmoregulatory vacuole.
In marine animals and parasites, vacuole is absent.
EXAMPLES: Amoeba, Entamoeba histolytica,
Shelled Sarcodins Radiolarian and Globigerina Ooze
Are studied by oil prospectors because the presence
Of certain species gives clues to possible petroleum deposits.
3. Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)
i) The body is covered with pellicle.
ii) Locomotion is taking place by numerous hairs like cilia found
on the surface, also help in getting food.
iii)They have mouth, through which the food enters the body.
iv)They contain two nuclei, Micronucleus and meganucleus,
micronucleus help in reproduction and meganucleus
controls all other functions.
v)Excretion is taking place by osmoregulatory vacuole
vi) Sexual reproduction is taking place by conjugation.
e.g. Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella,
Opalina, Balantidium and
Nyctotherus found in rectum of frog.
4. CLASS SUCTORIA:
i) The young animals of this class have cilia for locomotion. The adult
animals do not have cilia and they are attached to any solid object
by the help of a long rod-like structure.
ii) They contain two nuclei a smaller nucleus called micronucleus and a large nucleus
called meganucleus.
iii) They produce special thin structures from their outer surface,
called tentacles. Some tentacles are pointed and penetrate
into the body of prey and some tentacles have knob-like bodies
at their tips, which help to capture the prey, The tentacles also
secret a poisonous substance to paralyse the prey.
iii) Reproduction occurs by budding process
Examples: Acineta, Ephilota, Podphyra
5.CLASS SPOROZOA (APICOMPLEXA):
i) The animals of this class are exclusive parasite.
ii) They do not produce special organs for locomotion.
But some time shows amoeboid locomotion due to pseudopodia.
iii) They contain cytoplasm and nucleus.
iv) Reproduction takes place by asexual and sexual method.
Examples: Plasmodium causes malaria in man, Eimeria causes Coccidiasis in
poultry. Moncystis lives in the seminal vesicles of earthworm
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM( MALARIAL PARASITE):
Plasmodium is a microorganism. It belongs to phylum protozoa
class sporozoan. It causes malaria in human beings. The life cycle of plasmodium is completed in
the body of two hosts, hence known as digenic parasite.
i) The body of man, is called primary host.
Where Plasmodium shows asexual cycle.
ii) body of female Anopheles mosquito,
is called secondary host. Where Plasmodium
shows sexual cycle.
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM IN THE BODY OF MAN:
(Asexual Cycle in Man Schizogony)
When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a
healthy person, it transfers into the blood of man,
very small spindle or sickle shaped bodies,
called sporozoites. They contain cytoplasm and nucleus.
The sporozoites found in salivary glands,
bites man for sucking his blood.
 In man, the life cycle of plasmodium(Schizogony) consists of four phases.
i- Pre-erythrocytic phase.
ii- Erythrocytic phase.
iii- Post-erythrocytic Phase.
Iv- Gamogony (Formation of gametes).
i- PRE-ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE:
After sometime, these sporozoites are transferred from the blood to liver cells. Each
sporozoite enters a liver grows for number of days and becomes a schizont. It divides to
form a large number of uninucleate exoerythrocytic (EE)merozoites. These are released
when liver cell burst. The EE merozoites invade fresh liver cells and multiply producing
large amount number of new generation. This phase is referred as pre- erythrocytic
phase.
ii- ERYTHROCYTIC PHASE (Trophozoite Stage):
This phase take place in R.B.Cs. The exoerythrocytic merozoites, after escaping into the
blood stream, invade the red blood corpuscles. Each becomes rounded and is called
trophozoite. When it grows in size, the nucleus is pushed to one side into the peripheral
cytoplasm. It resembles a signet ring and is called as signet ring stage. The trophozoite
ingests a large amount of cytoplasm of the R.B.C. The blood haemoglobin is broken down
into its protein component, which is used by the trophozoite.
It develops into an active amoeboid trophozoite.
After active feeding it becomes rounded, grows
in size and becomes a schizont. It now undergoes
schizogony and produce erythrocytic (E) merozoites.
With the rupture of R.B.C. the erythrocytic (E) merozoites along with malarial pigments
formed by the residue of haemoglobin are liberated into the blood plasma. These
erythrocytic merozoites invade fresh corpuscles to repeat the cycle. The time taken to
complete one erythrocytic cycle depends upon the species of plasmodium(P. falciparum,
P. malariae, P.ovale, P.vivax, P. knowlesi).
3. GAMETOCYTOGENESIS:
After few generations erythrocytic merozoites
Increase in size to become gametocytes; male or
Microgametocytes, and female or macrogametocytes.
The gametocytes do not divide, but remain within
Their host blood corpuscle until they are ingested by the
Vector, in which they continue their development.

.
SEXUAL CYCLE IN MOSQUITO (SPOROGONY):
The sexual cycle of plasmodium is completed in the Stomach
of Female Anopheles mosquito. This cycle consists of following stages:
i- Gametogony(Formation of gametes)
Microgametocytes are smaller in size. Each male gametocyte
forms 6 to 8 sperm-like microgametes by a process
of exflagellation. Macrogametocytes are larger in size.
Each macrogametocyte develops into a single
female gamete, called Oocyte. It has a small part at one side,
known as cone of reception.
ii- Fertilization (Syngamy):
The two gametes of opposite sexes fuse together to form a zygote.
The process is called Syngamy. The zygote becomes
worm-like ookinete. It penetrates the stomach wall to settle
down just under the midgut.
Here after absorbing the nutrients, it becomes rounded and
encysts to form the oocyst.
iii- Sporogony:
In 6 to 7 days the nucleus of the oocyst divides into thousands of slender sporozoites by the process of sporogony.
The cyst bursts, and the liberated sporozoites are released into the haemocoele from where they migrate towards
the salivary glands and wait to be transferred to a human host.
SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA:
The symptoms of malaria appear after many
days of infection. The period of parasite in the body
before symptoms is called incubation period
The symptoms of malaria are:
i) Fever with shivering
ii)Vomiting or feeling
of vomiting
iii) Loss of appetite
iv)Constipation
v) Headache, pain in
the muscles and joints.
vi) In malaria the fever
may be up to 1060F,
there are shaking chills
and sweating.
Precautions and Treatment:
i) Mosquitoes should be eradicated, which are the cause of malaria.
ii) There should not be stagnant water places anywhere, because the
mosquitoes lay their eggs in stagnant water. iii) Immunized by vaccination.
iv) Use mosquito repellent, ointments. v) Use mosquito net while sleeping.

vi) In case of malaria antimalarial drugs

( hydroxychloroquine) should be used.
• MCQ
• 1-A 2- B 3- A 4- C 5- B 6- D 7- C 8- A 9- A 10- C
• (BOTANY PORTION)VERY SHORT NOTES
1Why do biologists consider protoctist as a polyphyletic group of organisms?
• A) Biologists consider protoctists as a polyphyletic group of organisms. It means they do not share a
single, common ancestor. Here we have divided them into three groups.
• Chlorella
• (i) Plant like protoctists----Algae
• Ulva
• Slime mold
• Fungi like Protoctists -----Primitive Fungi
• Water mold
• Animal like Protoctists-----Protozoa
2.Which antibiotics are obtained from chlorella
• A) Chlorellin.
3. Define Isomorphic alternation of generation
• A) It is unique feature of Ulva, in which gametophyte and sporophyte are similar in morphology but
differ in chromosome numbers. The condition is called isomorphic alternation of generation.
• SHORT NOTES
• ) Write note on Diversity among Protoctista.
• A) The diversity among protoctista shows that protoctist kingdom belongs to polyphyletic group of organisms. It means they do not share a single
common ancestor. Here we have divided them into three groups.
• Plant-like Protoctists Algae
• Fungi-like Protoctists Primitive Fungi
• Animal-like Protoctists Protozoa
• Define Isomorphic alternation of generation with example.
• A) The life cycle of Ulva has two stages, the sporophyte and gametophyte. Due to presence of two stages the whole process is known as alternation of
generation, so gametophyte and sporophyte are similar in structure, there for this type of alternation of generation is known as Isomorphic alternation
of generation. Example is ULVA.
Write note on Slime molds.
• A) Slime mold (Plasmodium): Slime molds are fungi like organisms and due to certain characters, these are included in kingdom Protoctista.
• Structure:
• Slime mold: consists of a mass of cytoplasm which is covered by plasma membrane and a slimy layer. Cell wall is absent; the naked cytoplasm contains
many nuclei and looks like egg white. The cytoplasm consists of outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm parts.
• Slime mold is also called plasmodium. It grows on moist and shady places and produces many pseudopodia, which pseudopodia, which help in
amoeboid movement. It takes bacteria and other food particles by the help of pseudopodia. It also contains food vacuoles in the cytoplasm.
• Asexual Reproduction:
• In slime mold, asexual reproduction takes place by sporangia, in sporangia; many spores are produced by meiosis, so these are haploid spores.
• Sexual Reproduction: The flagellated cells, which are produced from spores are function as gametes (sex cells) and fuse in pairs. This is true sexual
reproduction, even though the gametes appear to be identical in structure. Cells resulting from the fusion of gametes become amoeboid and form a
new plasmodium.
• Write note on Phytophthora infestan.
• A) Phytophthora is a fungi like organism, but due to certain characters, it is included in kingdom protoctista. It causes a disease
in potato and tomato, called late-blight. It also causes tuber rot disease in underground part of potato.
• Structure: The body of Phytophthora is known as mycelium. It is composed of many thread-like structures, called hyphae. The
hyphae are endophytic branched aseptate coenocytic hyaline and nodulated. In the mycelium, cytoplasm is present which has
many nuclei. Due to unseptate and multinucleated condition. It is called coenocytic mycelium. The mycelium is intercellular or
intracellular and absorbs food material from cells by special structures called haustoria. In the cytoplasm, oil globules are also
present to store food material.
• Symptoms Of Disease: The symptoms of the disease appear both upon aerial and underground parts. The first sign of the
disease is the appearance of small brown patches on leaves which, in cloudy and muggy weather, rapidly increase to the whole
surface.
• Due to late blight disease, many black or bluish spots are produced on leaves in late season after flower formation. After that,
the whole plant and tubers of potato are also affected.
• Asexual Reproduction: This reproduction takes place by zoospores which are produced in reproductive organs, called
sporangia.
• Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction is oogamous. The female sex organs oogonium and male organ is antheridium. Male
and female gametes are produced in respective gametangia. The diploid nucleus of zygote divides by mitosis to form many
nuclei.
• Q41) Give the economic importance of Phytophthora infestan,
• The most important species phytophthora infestan causes the Late blight of potato. This is havoc to potato crop and causes
sufficient damage. The symptoms of the disease appear both upon aerial and underground parts. The whole plant becomes
blighted in severe conditions. Dry and wet rots damage the tubers. The tuber due to disease become smaller in size and show
dry rot with rusty brown markings in the flesh and brown depressions at certain places, in the skin.
• (ZOOLOGY PORTION)REASONING QUESTIONS
1. Why are protozoa included in kingdom Protoctista?
• A) Protozoa includes a group of Unicellular heterotrophic organisms, so they are included in kingdom Protoctista.
• NON-REASONING QUESTIONS
• State any four distinguish characters of Protozoa.
• A) i)The members of this phylum are unicellular or acellular, microscopic, body is regular or irregular in shape, live singly or in
colony.
• ii) Protoplasm divides into ectoplasm and endoplasm, Nucleus is prominent one, two or many in number( Multinucleated)
• iii)They are autotrophic as well as heterotrophic in mode of nutrition, respire through diffusion, locomote with help of
Pseudopodia, flagella and cilia
• iv) Reproduce asexually by fission and spore formation sexually by gametes and conjugation
• Examples: Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium, Acineta, Plasmodium etc.
• Write the names of classes of Protozoa with examples./Write the examples of each class
• A) Phylum Protozoa is divided into five classes:
I. Class Flagellata or Mestigophora e.g. Euglena, Volvox, Trypanosoma, Leishmania
II. Class Sarcodina or Rhizopoda e.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba, Radiolarian Ooze, Globigerina Ooze.
III. Class Ciliata or Ciliophora e.g. Paramecium, Vorticella, Stentor, Opalina, Balantidium, Nyctotherus
IV. Class Suctoria e.g. Acineta, Ephilota, Podophyra
V. Class Sporozoa e.g. Plasmodium, Coccidia, Moncystis.
• Distinguish between class Flagellata and class Ciliata.
• A) Class Flagellata (Mestigophora)
I. The body is covered with pellicle
II. Locomotion is taking place by long thread like structures, called flagella.
III. Some animals contain chlorophyll (Phytoflagellata) manufacture their own food material, e.g. Euglena, Volvox
IV. Some animals are without chlorophyll(zooflagellata) or parasitic flagellates e.g. Trypanosoma , Leishmania.
V. Parasitic flagellates do not bear food vacuole and osmoregulatory vacuoles.
VI. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission.
VII. Sexual reproduction is taking place by gametes
•
• Class Ciliata (Ciliophora)
i) The body is covered with pellicle
ii) Locomotion is taking place by numerous hairs like cilia found on the surface, also help in getting food.
iii) They have mouth, through which the food enters the body.
iv) They contain two nuclei, Micronucleus and meganucleus, micronucleus help in reproduction and meganucleus controls all
other functions
v) Sexual reproduction is taking place by conjugation.
vi) Excretion is taking place by osmoregulatory vacuole
• e.g. Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella, Opalina, Balantidium and Nyctotherus found in rectum of frog.
• What are the symptoms of Malaria?
• A) Symptoms of Malaria
• The symptoms of malaria appear after many days of infection. The period of parasite in
the body before symptoms is called incubation period
• The symptoms of malaria are:
i) Fever with shivering
ii) Vomiting or feeling of vomiting
iii)Loss of appetite
iv)Constipation
v) Headache, pain in the muscles and joints.
vi)In malaria the fever may be up to 1060F, there are shaking chillis and sweating.
Precautions and Treatment:
vii)Mosquitoes should be eradicated, which are the cause of malaria.
viii)There should not be stagnant water places anywhere, because the mosquitoes lay
their eggs in stagnant water.
ix)In case of malaria antimalarial drugs ( hydroxychloroquine) should be used.
1. Plant like protoctists are
• a. oomycota b. protozoa
• c. algae d. parazoa
2. Fungi like protoctists are
• a. protozoa b. algae
• c. oomycota d. parazoa
3. Animal like protoctists are
• a. protozoa b. algae
• c. oomycota d. parazoa
4. In algae algin means
• a. seed weed b. sea weed
• c. sea whip d. sea cow
5. Which one of the following is a fresh water algae
• a. ulva b. nostoc
• c. cyanobacteria d. chlorella
6. The reproduction take place in chlorella through
• a. zoospore b. aplanospores
• c. endospores d. conidiospore
7. On chlorella protoplast divide in
• a. 4-8 daughter protoplast b. 8-16 daughter protoplast
• c. 16-32 daughter protoplast d. 32-64 daughter protoplast
8. Chlorella contains chloroplast of
• a. cup shape b. band shape
• c. round shape d. irregular shape
9. Chlorella produce an antibiotic called
• a. augmentine b. polypap
• c. erythrosine d. chlorellin
10. Ulva is commonly known as
• a. lettuce b. spinach
• c. Chenopodium d. sea lettuce
11. Ulva found along sea coast attached to rocky edge of
• a. manora b. sandspit
• b. Clifton d. hawks bay
12. The plant body called thallus is composed of elongated wrinkled blade as a length
• a. 10 cm b. 25 cm
• c. 25 cm d. 30 cm
13. When two generations alternate with each other this phenomenon called
• a. alternation of generation b. heterospory
• c. next generation d. none
14. The number of chromosomes in ulva is
• a. 22 b. 24
• c. 26 d. 46
15. The alternation of generation in ulva is called
• a. isomorphic b. heteromorphic
• c. next d. partial
• 16. The asexual plant is knowing as
• a. sporophyte b. gametophyte
• c. erythrocyte d. leucocyte
• 17. The sexual plant is known as
• a. erythrocyte b. leucocyte
• c. sporophyte d. gametophyte
• 18. Due to differences biologist believed that kingdom protoctista belonged to
• a. monophyletic group b. diphyletic group
• c. polyphyletic group d. all of them
• 19. The thallus of ulva is very thin & thickness is only of
• a. 4 cells b. 2 cells
• c. 8 cells d. 10 cells
• 20. Ulva is attached to rock & other objects in the sea by means of
• a. root b. rhizoids
• c. hold fast d. root hairs
• 21. The sexual reproduction in ulva is
• a. an isogamous b. isogamous
• c. oogamous d. heterogamous
• 22. In euglena pyrenoids stores
• a. glucose b. sucrose
• c. glycogen d. starch
• 23. Which of the following living thing brings to mind a giant amoeba
• a. water molds b. slime molds
• c. Rhizopus d. mucor
• 24. Which one of the following is the water mold
• a. phytophthora b. Rhizopus
• c. mucor d. chlorella
• 25. Phytophthora causing a disease in
• a. apple b. pear
• c. cauliflower d. potato
• 26. The optimum temperature for the germination of the sporangium producing zoospores is
• a. 35oC b. 12oC
• c. 24oC d. 5oC
• 27. The sporangia formed in phytophthora are
• a. apple shape b. guava shape
• c. lemon shape d. orange shape
• 28. The % of relative humidity is required by sporangia of phytophthora is
• a. 100 % b. 90 %
• c. 80 % d. 95 %
• 29. The optimum temperature for the production of sporangia is
• a. 12oC b. 3oC
• c. 21oC d. 22oC
• 30. There is one flagellate that belongs to phytomastigophora
• a. Trypanosoma b. trichomonas
• c. leishmania d. euglena
• 31. The locomotory organelles of mastigophora is
• a. flagella b. pseudopodia
• c. cilia d. parapodia
• 32. All of the following are examples of phytomastigophora except
• a. euglena b. paranema
• c. Chlamydomonas d. amoeba
• 33. Protozoans are groups according to their mode of
• a. nutrition b. locomotion
• c. host specifity d. respiration
• 34. The flagellate which cause sleeping sickness is called
• a. Trypanosoma b. leishmania
• c. entamoeba d. plasmodium
• 35. Leishmania is responsible to cause a disease called
• a. coccidiosis b. dysentery
• c. malaria d. kalazar
• 36. Trypanosoma reaches inside the body of host through
• a. Sand fly b. Tsetse fly
• c. Culex d. House fly
• 37. Leishmania reaches inside the body of the host through
• a. Sand fly b. Tsetse fly
• c. Culex d. House fly
• 38. The protozoan usually do not have regular shape are included in class
• a. Sarcodina b. Suctoria
• c. ciliate d. flagelata
• 39. The locomotory organelle of Sarcodina
• a. Flagella b. Cilia
• c. Pseudopodia d. Setae
40 Human dysentery is caused by
• a. Entamoeba histolytica b. Nyctotherus
• c. Balantidium d. Trypanosoma
• 41. Radiolarian ooze or Globigerina ooze help in Searching of
• a. Mustard Oil b. Coconut
• c. Castor Oil d. Petroleum
• 42. Another name of class Sarcodina is
• a. Ciliaphora b. Rhizopoda
• c. Mestigophora d. Suctoria
• 43. another Name of Class Flagellata
• a. Ciliphora b. Rhizopoda
• c. Mastigophora d. Suctoria
• 44. Another name of class ciliate is
• a. Ciliophora b. Rhizopoda
• c. Mastigophora d. Suctoria
• 45. Many ciliate have a groove called
• a. Pharynx b. Basket
• c. Larynx d. Gullet
• 46. The most Common sexual reproduction in ciliate is
• a. Gametogony b. Oogamy
• c. conjugation d. Plasmogamy
• 47. In ciliate locomotion take place by
• a. Cilia b. Flagella
• c. Lobopodia d. Uropod
• 48. Acineta is an example of
• a. Sporozoa b. Sarcodina
• c. Flagellata d. Suctoria
• 49. In Suctoria young have cilia but adult are sedentary have
• a. Hold Fast b. Root
• c. Stalk d. Root Hair
• 50. The body of Acineta bears poisonous extensions called
• a. bristles b. Tentacles
• c. Hairs d. Spines
• 51. The largest number of parasitic protozoa is found in the class
• a. Ciliata b. Sarcodina
• c. Flagellata d. Sporozoa
• 52. coccidiosis is a disease of
• a. Human b. Cattle
• c. Poultry d. Insects
• 53. Which one of the following lives in Seminal Vesicles of earthworm
• a. Plasmodium b. Monocystis
• c. Emaria d. Trypanosoma
• 54. Malaria is caused by
• a. Plasmodium b. Balantidium
• c. Giardia d. Euglena
 FUNGI

FUNGI
INTRODUCTION TO FUNGI:
• Fungi are multicellular eukaryotic non-chlorophyllous
absorptive heterotrophs.
• The body of fungi is called thallus. Thallus consist of many
thread-like structures known as hyphae (sing hypha).
• Hundreds of hyphae unit, to form a network called Mycelium.

PLANT LIKE CHARACTER:

Previously fungi were regarded as plants as they resemble plants in having.
i. Having cell wall
ii. Lacking centriole
iii. Being non-motile
ANIMAL LIKE CHARACTER:
Fungi resemble animals as.
i. Being heterotrophic
ii. Having Cell wall made up of chitin
iii. Having reserve food material in the form of glycogen and oil droplet.
UNIQUE CHARACTER:
Fungi have some unique characters and resemble
neither plants nor animals. Hence, Fungi are
placed in a separate Kingdom.
i. The sequence of nucleotide in the DNA confirm
that they are different from plants and animals.
ii. They have characteristic mitosis called
Nuclear mitosis, or closed mitosis during which
nuclear membrane
does not break and spindle are formed within the nucleus.
iii. Cell wall contains chitin.
iv- All fungal nuclei are haploid except for transient diploid zygote that forms during sexual
reproduction.
CHARACTERS OF FUNGI:
i. Fungi are special living organism and have simple body called mycelium.
ii. Fungi do not contain chlorophyll so they are not able to manufacture their own
food material. They are either parasites or saprophytes.
iii. Their cell wall is made up of chitin.
iv. They either cause diseases in plants and animals and destroy foodstuff.
v. Some fungi are useful and may be used as food, such as Mushroom. These
mushrooms are of different types and some mushrooms are poisonous.
vi. In fungi, reproduction takes
place by asexual or sexual method.
vii. From fungi, Penicillin and
other antibiotics are obtained.
STRUCTURE OF FUNGI:
i. The body of fungi is very simple, known as mycelium.
It consists of many thread-like or fiber-like structures
known as Hyphae.
ii. Inside the mycelium, cytoplasm, nuclei and
oil globules are present. Oil globules
store food material.
iii. Mycelium are of three types.
a. Septate mycelium (Hyphae) septa=cross wall. In this type,
hyphae are divided by cross wall. So mycelium internally
divided into many cells. Each cell contains one nucleus
(primary) two nuclei (Secondary) hyphae.
b. Aseptate mycelium (Hyphae) A=not, septa=cross wall. In this type, hyphae are not
divided into individual cells. It is also known as Coenocytic, hyphae ( multinucleate
condition with common cytoplasm).
c. Septate with perforation. In many septate fungi have a pore through which cytoplasm
flows from cell to cell.
NUTRITION IN FUNGI:
According to nutrition, fungi are of different types.
i) Saprophytic Fungi:
These fungi obtain their food from dead organic substances. They decompose organic
food into simpler compounds and then use energy e.g. Rhizopus, Mucor.
ii) Parasitic Fungi:
These fungi obtain their food from other
living organisms. They cause infection or
diseases in the body of living organisms.
They are of two types.
a) Obligate Parasitic Fungi:
They obtain their food completely from the host body, either plants or animals.
b) Facultative Parasitic Fungi:
These fungi obtain their food from the body of the host but they can grow on prepared
food material also.
Predator Fungi:
There are few fungi, which attack the host body,
sometimes kill them and obtain Nitrogenous substances from its body.
For example, certain fungi attack Nematodes, kill them and
get Nitrogenous compounds from their body.
iv) Symbiotic Fungi:
These fungi form an association with some other living organisms.
Both organisms provide benefits to each other. This association is
called symbiosis and the fungi are known as symbiotic fungi.
Lichen:
The condition in which algae and fungi live together
in the form of a group, these are called Lichens, such
as Nostoc, Cladophora. In this condition Fungus (Ascomycetes, or basidiomycetes)
protect the algae from strong light and desiccation by absorbing moisture, while fungi
itself gets food from algae. Lichens vary in colour, shape, overall appearance, growth
form. They are ecologically very important as Bio indicators of air pollution
Mycorrhiza:
• This fungus lives with roots of higher plants. Fungi absorb
certain chemical substances from soil, such as copper,
phosphorus and zinc etc. These substances are used by plants and fungi get some
food from plant body. In such manner, both are useful to each other.
• Mycorrhizal fungi are of two types.
a. Endomycorrhizal fungi:
These fungi live inside the root cells of
plant e.g. Orchids.
b. Ectomycorrhizal fungi:
These fungi live on the outer surface of
root and around the cells. They do not
enter the root cells e.g. Pinus root.
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI:
In Fungi, there are two types of reproduction.
1- Asexual Reproduction 2- Sexual Reproduction
1- Asexual Reproduction:
This type of reproduction occurs by different methods.
i) Fragmentation (ii) Budding (iii) Spore Formation (iv) Conidia
i) Fragmentation:
In this process, the mycelium of fungus may be broken into
small pieces due to certain reasons. These fragments can
develop into new mycelium of fungus.
This method is known as fragmentation.
ii) Budding:
In some fungi, for example yeast, during reproduction,
small cells called buds are produced from the parent cell,
the nucleus of parent cell divides into two nuclei,
one nucleus is transferred into the bud. After that the
bud is separated from the parent cell, it can develop
into a new independent cell. Sometimes many
buds may be produced in chain-like manner.
After that each bud develops into a new cell of yeast.
iii) Spore Formation:
It is a common process in fungi. In this process,
small reproductive bodies called spores are produced.
The spores are formed in reproductive organs, known as sporangia. These spores
become free after maturation. The spores can germinate into new mycelium. In
some fungi, spores have flagella. Such spores are called zoospores. These are
produced in zoosporangia. After maturation, each zoospore can germinate into
new mycelium.
iv) conidia:
In some fungi, the reproductive bodies are produced on special
branches known as conidiophores. These branches produce
small rounded bodies in chain-like manner, called conidia.
These conidia are not formed inside the reproductive organs. Conidia are
separated from the branches then they can germinate into new mycelium during
favourable conditions.
2- Sexual Reproduction:
In fungi sexual reproduction takes place by the
formation
of male and female reproductive organs. The
male organs
are known as Antheridia and female are called
Oogonia.
When fertilization takes place the fusion of
cytoplasm is called Plasmogamy and fusion of
nuclei is known as Karyogamy. As a result of
fertilization, zygote is formed, the zygote does
not develop directly into new mycelium. It
produces spores by meiosis. The spores
germinate during favourable conditions and
develop into new mycelium of Fungi.
• In sexual reproduction fungal hypha or cell having two nuclei of different genetic
types is called dikaryotic or heterokaryotic hyphae or cell.
• Different groups of fungi produce different types of haploid sexual spores, such as
basidiospores and ascospores. These spores after meiosis in zygote produced
fruiting bodies such as basidia or basidiocarp and asci ascocarp.
• CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
Fungi are classified into four divisions or phyla.
1) Zygomycota (2) Ascomycota (3) Basidiomycota
(4) Deuteromycota
1) Zygomycota:
i. It is the smallest and simplest division of fungi with
only 600 named species.
ii. It has coenocytic mycelium i.e. it is multinucleate
and unseptate.
iii. Reproduction takes place by asexual and sexual
methods.
iv. The group is named after the production of
temporarily dormant structure known as
Zygospore
For Example: Mucor, Rhizopus, (Bread mold)
LIFE CYCLE OF ZYGOMYCOTA:
e.g. MUCOR OR RHIZOPUS (BREAD MOLD)
Rhizopus is saprophytic fungi. They grow on
dead organic food substances, such as bread,
rotten fruits etc.
STRUCTURE:
The body is called mycelium. It consists
of many thread-like structures, called hyphae.
The hyphae contain cytoplasm, many nuclei
and oil globules. Due to the presence of many
nuclei and unseptate condition, the mycelium
is called Coenocytic mycelium.
REPRODUCTION:
In Rhizopus, there are two types
of reproduction.
1- Asexual Reproduction 2- Sexual Reproduction
1- Asexual Reproduction:
When the conditions are favourable, Rhizopus start
asexual reproduction. In this process, many erect
branches arise from the hyphae, called Sporangiophores.
at the tip of each sporangiophore, a rounded
body is developed.in this rounded body, cytoplasm,
nuclei and oil globules are transferred from the hyphae,
the oil globules form a wall in the rounded body, so two
portions are formed. The upper larger portion is
called Sporangium and the lower smaller portion
is known as columella.
In sporangium, many spores are formed. Columella increases
in size and exerts a pressure on the wall of sporangium,
as a result of which it ruptures and all the spores become free.
These spores remain in air. Whenever they find any
organic food substance, they fall
down and start germination,
to form new mycelium.
2-Sexual Reproduction:
The process of sexual reproduction is as follows.
i- At the time of reproduction, two different hyphae
come parallel to each other.
ii- From each hypha,
an outgrowth, papilla is developed.
iii-Each papilla divides into two cells,
the basal cell is called suspensor,
and the other cell is known as gametangium.
iv- In each gametangium, a gamete is formed.
These gametes are similar in their
external structure,so they are called isogametes.
V- The two isogametes are fused together
to form zygospore. The fusion of two isogametes
is known as conjugation.
GERMINATION OF ZYGOSPORE:
The zygospore germinates into a tube-like
structure, called Sporangiophore or
promycelium. At the tip of promycelium,
a sporangium is developed, in which
numerous spores are formed.
This sporangium is without columella.
After the maturation of spores, the wall
of sporangium ruptures and all the
spores come out. When they fall on any
organic matter, they germinate into
new mycelium of fungus.
2-Ascomycota:
1- It is the second and largest division of the fungi with
30000 named species.
2- They have septate mycelium i.e. mycelium is internally divided into cells.
3- Each cell contains cytoplasm and nucleus.
4- Reproduction takes place by ascospores, which are produced in sac-like structures called asci (ascus-singular)so
known as sac-fungi.
5- The ascomycota are named for their characteristic reproductive structure, the microscopic, club-shaped ascus.
For Example: Yeasts, morals, truffles, powdery mildew (pathogen) etc.
LIFE CYCLE OF ASCOMYCOTA:
In the life cycle of Ascomycota, there are two types of reproduction
1- Asexual Reproduction 2- Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction take place by different methods but conidia formation is the most
common reproduction. Other methods are budding and fission etc.
Conidia Formation:
Conidia formation is a very rapid and common method
of reproduction. In this process, some erect branches
called conidiophores arise from the mycelium. These
conidiophores produce many branches again.
At the tip of each branch, some rounded bodies
called conidia are developed in chain-like manner
known as Conidia. The conidia are separated from
the branched and develop into new mycelium.
Sexual Reproduction:
In ascomycota, sexual reproduction takes place by the formation
of male and female reproductive organs. Male are known as antheridia,
and female are known as ascogonia. The ascogonium produce
a special structure, called Trichogyne, through which it is connected with antheridium.
Through the trichogyne, the male nucleus is transferred into female organ, where
fertilization takes place and zygote is formed.
The zygote is changed into a special structure,
called ascus. In the ascus, after fertilization,
the zygote nucleus divides by meiosis into
2 then, 4 and 8 nuclei. These nuclei
are converted into ascospores. The organ in
which ascospores are formed is called ascus.
The ascospores are dispersed by wind.
They can develop into new mycelium,
during favourable conditions.
Formation Of Ascocarp:
In Ascomycota, asci are produced in special organs, called ascocarp.
This ascocarp is a fruiting body (fruit-like). Its function is protection
of asci. These ascocarps are different types.
1- Apothecium:
It is a cup-shaped or saucer-shaped organ.
The asci are not covered by an outer covering.
In apothecium, some paraphysis (hair-like structure)
Are also present. Asci are produced at the upper region
Of Apothecium. In each ascus, ascospores are produced.
The ascospores are released from the asci.
2- Perithecium:
Perithecium is a flask-shaped fruiting body.
It has an opening, called ostiole. In perithecium,
many asci are present, in which ascospores are produced.
When ascospores become mature, these are released from
The perithecium through the ostiole.
3- Cleistothecium:
It is a closed, Ball-like ascocarp, without any opening. When the
ascospore become mature, the outer layer of Cleistothecium
ruptures and ascospores are liberated out.
Yeasts:
Yeasts are unicellular belongs to group
Ascomycota. Yeast is unicellular and supposed to
Be keep in Protoctista but yeast primarily originated from
Multicellular ancestors mostly belongs to Ascomycota.
Yeast mostly shows asexual reproduction through
cell fission or budding. Some time show sexual
reproduction, in which whole yeast
cells may fuse. One of these cells,
containing two nuclei, may then function as
an ascus with syngamy followed immediately
by meiosis; the resulting ascospores
function directly as new yeast cells.
Economic Importance Of Yeast:
i. Yeast is used in fermentation of carbohydrates to produce alcohol
ii. It is used in beer and wine making.
iii.It is useful to prepare bakery products.

iv.It spoils many food stuffs, especially cheese and tomato.

v. It causes many diseases, such as vaginal thrush(Candida) and cryptococcosis
DIVISION BASIDIOMYCOTA:
1. It is the third division of the fungi which has 16,000 named species.
2. It is the division of advanced fungi. In this division rust, smut, puff balls,
bracket fungi, jelly fungi, shelf fungi, mushrooms and toadstools are included. They are
parasite or poisonous.
3. They have septate mycelium, with cytoplasm and nucleus.
4. The mycelium may be of two types.
i. Primary mycelium: In this mycelium, each cell is uninucleate
i.e., one nucleus is present. It is also known as monokaryotic mycelium.
ii. Secondary mycelium: In this mycelium, each cell contains two nuclei. So, it is known as
dikaryotic mycelium.
5. Reproduction takes place by basidiospores. These basidiospores are produced in
basidia.
6. Many fungi of this division cause diseases in plants, such as rust and smut disease in
wheat, rice and maize etc.
7. The group is named for their characteristics sexual reproductive structure known as
basidium.
Reproduction in Basidiomycetes:
In Basidiomycetes, the reproductive organs are called basidia.
These are club-shaped organs and produce spores, called
basidiospores. These basidiospores are borne at the end of
the basidium on slender projections are called sterigmata( singular; sterigma). In
this way the structure of a basidium differs from that of an ascus, although
functionally the two are identical.
Division- DEUTEROMYCOTA (Fungi Imperfecti):
1. It is fourth division of the fungi which includes 17,000 species.
2. In this group, those fungi are included which do not have sexual reproduction.
They do not produce zygote, zygospore, oospore etc. They show only asexual
reproduction.
3. Mostly, they are parasites, but some are saprophytes also.
4. Their mycelium is branched and septate.
Their mycelium is either intercellular or intracellular.
5.Reproduction takes place by conidia.
6. Sexual reproduction is absent, but genetic recombination
takes place, called parasexuality.
In parasexuality, the exchange of portions of
chromosomes between the genetically distinct nuclei
within the common hypha takes place. It is responsible
for production of new pathogenic strains of wheat rust.

7-Economically important genera are penicillium and aspergillus. Some species of

penicillium are source of well-known antibiotics penicillin. Some of the genus give
the characteristics flavor and aroma to cheese. Species of Aspergillus are used for
fermenting soya sauce and soya paste.
Economic Importance Of Fungi:
Useful Fungi:
i. Food: Many kinds of edible fungi are the source of nourishing and delicious food dishes
e.g. Mushroom; Yeast are utilized in baking industry.
ii. Medicine: Fungi have explored a new field of medicine by producing antibiotics like
Penicillin, Chloromycetin, Neomycin and Terramycin.
i. Soil Fertility: they maintain soil fertility by decomposing the dead organic material e.g.
Saprophytic Fungi.
ii. Decomposition of dead bodies: Fungi obtain their food by decomposition of dead bodies
of plants and animals, so they clean our environment and are termed cleaners or
recyclers.
Harmful Fungi:
i. Food Spoilage: Fungi are mainly saprophytes. They cause tremendous amount of
spoilage of food stuff.
ii. Spoilage of Organic material: Many Fungi spoil leather goods, wool, books, timber, cotton
etc.
iii. Plant disease: Fungi cause different diseases to plants, destroy agricultural crop, fruits
and ornaments. Some diseases are Rust, Smut, Downy and Powdery Mildew.
• Human diseases: Fungi cause several diseases in human being e.g. Aspergillosis caused
• by Aspergillus. It is ear, lungs disease Moniliasis caused by Monilia, it is skin,
• mouth gum diseases.
ECONOMIC LOSES DUE TO FUNGI:
Plant Diseases:
Fungi produce tremendous Economic loss by producing different diseases in plants, animals and human beings.
Powdery Mildew on grape, rose, wheat. Ergot of rye, Red rot of sugar can, Potato wilt, Cotton root rot, Apple scab,
Brown rot of peaches, Apricot etc.
Human Diseases:
• 1. Candida albicans:
• Yeast causes oral and vaginal thrush.
• 2. Aspergillus fumigatus:
• Causes aspergillosis in person with defective immune system may cause death.
• 3. Aspergillus flavus:
• Some strain produced one of the most carcinogenic (cancer causing) Mycotoxin i.e. Aflatoxin. Aspergillus
contaminates improperly stored grains such as Peanut, corn, etc.
• 4. Histoplasma capsulatum:
• Causes Histoplasmosis, a serious infection of Lungs caused by inhaling spores found in soil contaminated
with birds' faeces. It may be fatal.
• 5. Purple ergot:
• Contaminates rye flour causes ergotism by eating bread made from it. Poisonous material in the ergot
causes nervous spasm, convulsion, psychotic delusion and even gangrene
LAND ADAPTATION OF FUNGI:
Following characteristics enable fungi to live on land.

1. Hyphae that absorb water and soluble

nutrients also anchor the plant.

2.Thick-walled drought resistant spores

are produced in large number.

3. Instead of forming gametes having flagella,

special gametes are produced which need
no water for fertilization.
• MCQS
• 1-C 2- A 3- C 4- C 5-B 6-B 7-A 8-D 9-B 10- A
• VERY SHORT QUESTIONS
1.Define nuclear mitosis
• A) NUCLEAR MITOSIS: During which nuclear membrane does not breaks and spindle
fibers are found within the nucleus
2. Define predator fungi with example
• A) They paralysis the nematodes, penetrate them, and absorb their nutritional content
to fulfil their nitrogen requirements e.g., Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom).
3.Explain Coenocytic mycelium
• A) The mycelium in which hyphae are without septa called aseptate or multinucleated
hyphae known as coenocytic mycelium.
4.Name four groups of Fungi
• A) There are four major division/phyla of fungi
• (i) Zygomycota (ii) Ascomycota (iii) Basidiomycota (iv) Deuteromycota
5.Name various types of Ascocarp.
• A) Types of Ascocarp: (I) Apothecium (ii) Perithecium (iii) Celistothecium
5.Why are Deuteromycota called Fungi Imperfecti?
• A) Deuteromycota only show asexual reproduction there for known as Fungi
Imperfecti.
6. Define Parasexuality: In Parasexuality the exchange of portions of chromosomes
between the genetically distinct nuclei within the common hypha takes place. It is
found in the class Deuteromycota
7.Which antibiotic is obtained from Penicillium?
• A) Penicillin
8.Which carcinogenic toxin is produced by fungi? Also mention the name of fungi.
• A) Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus.
9.Write the names of two steps of sexual reproduction and define them in fungi.
• A) It completes in two steps
• a) Plasmogamy: It is the fusion of cytoplasm
• Karyogamy: It is the fusion of nuclei.
• SHORT NOTES
Define Mycelium
• A) The body of a fungus, called mycelium, consists of long, slender, branched
tubular thread like filament called hyphae singular hypha. The hypha with walls
called septate, hypha contains one or two nuclei. The hypha without walls called
aseptate contains many nuclei called multinucleated or coenocytic hyphae.
Name four groups of Fungi with their reproductive structures
• A) The four groups of fungi are as follows
• Zygomycota: Reproduce through gametangia or conjugation
• Ascomycota: Reproduce through ascospores, which turn into fruit body the
ascus, or asci or ascocarp.
• Basidiomycota: Reproduce through basidiospores, which turn into fruit body the
basidium, or basidia or basidiocarp.
• Deuteromycota: Reproduce through genetic recombination termed as
parasexuality.
Write short note on Lichen or Mycorrhiza.
• A) Lichen: The condition in which algae and fungi live together in the form of a
group, these are called Lichens, such as nostoc, chladophora. In this condition
Fungus (Ascomycetes, or basidiomycetes) protect the algae from strong light and
desiccation by absorbing moisture, while fungi itself gets food from algae. Lichens
vary in colour, shape, overall appearance, growth form. They are ecologically very
important as Bio indicators of air pollution.
• Mycorrhiza: This fungus lives with roots of higher plants. Fungi absorb certain
chemical substances from soil, such as copper, phosphorus and zinc etc. These
substances are used by plants and fungi get some food from plant body. In such
manner, both are useful to each other.
• Mycorrhizal fungi are of two types.
a. Endomycorrhizal fungi: These fungi live inside the root cells of plant e.g.,
Orchids.
b. Ectomycorrhizal fungi: These fungi live on the outer surface of root and around
the cells. They do not enter the root cells e.g., Pinus root.
State the characteristics of land adaptations of Fungi.
• A) Following characteristics enable fungi to live on land.
1. Hyphae that absorb water and soluble nutrients also anchor the plant.
2. Thick-walled drought resistant spores are produced in large number.
3. Instead of forming gametes having flagella, special gametes are produced which
need no water for fertilization.
Write note on economic importance of yeast.
• A) Economic Importance Of Yeast:
i. Yeast is used in fermentation of carbohydrates to produce alcohol
ii. It is used in beer and wine making.
iii.It is useful to prepare bakery products.
iv.It spoils many food stuffs, especially cheese and tomato.
v. It causes many diseases, such as vaginal thrush and cryptococcosis.
 Describe the salient feature of Basidiomycota.
• A) Division Basidiomycota:
1. It is the third division of the fungi which has 16,000 named species.
2. It is the division of advanced fungi. In this division rust, smut, puff balls, bracket fungi,
jelly fungi, shelf fungi, mushrooms and toadstools are included. They are parasite or
poisonous.
3. They have septate mycelium, with cytoplasm and nucleus.
4. The mycelium may be of two types.
i. Primary mycelium: In this mycelium, each cell is uninucleate i.e., one nucleus is
present. It is also known as monokaryotic mycelium.
ii. Secondary mycelium: In this mycelium, each cell contains two nuclei. So, it is known as
dikaryotic mycelium.
1. Reproduction takes place by basidiospores. These basidiospores are produced in
basidia.
2. Many fungi of this division cause diseases in plants, such as rust and smut disease in
wheat, rice and maize etc.
3. The group is named for their characteristics sexual reproductive structure known as
basidium.
Write note on Deuteromycota.
• A) Division- Deuteromycota (Fungi Imperfecti):
1. It is fourth division of the fungi which includes 17,000 species.
2. In this group, those fungi are included which do not have sexual reproduction. They do
not produce zygote, zygospore, oospore etc. They show only asexual reproduction.
3. Mostly, they are parasites, but some are saprophytes also.
4. Their mycelium is branched and septate. Their mycelium is either intercellular or
intracellular.
5. Reproduction takes place by conidia.
6. Sexual reproduction is absent, but genetic recombination takes place, called
parasexuality. In parasexuality, the exchange of portions of chromosomes between the
genetically distinct nuclei within the common hypha takes place. It is responsible for
production of new pathogenic strains of wheat rust.
7. Economically important genera are penicillium and aspergillus. Some species of
penicillium are source of well-known antibiotics penicillin. Some of the genus give the
characteristics flavor and aroma to cheese. Species of Aspergillus are used for
fermenting soya sauce and soya paste.
Write the economic importance of fungi.
• A) Useful Fungi:
i. Food: Many kinds of edible fungi are the source of nourishing and delicious food dishes e.g.
Mushroom, Yeast are utilized in baking industry.
ii. Medicine: Fungi have explored a new field of medicine by producing antibiotics like Penicillin,
Chloromycetin, Neomycin and Terramycin.
iii. Soil Fertility: they maintain soil fertility by decomposing the dead organic material e.g.
Saprophytic Fungi.
iv. Decomposition of dead bodies: Fungi obtain their food by decomposition of dead bodies of
plants and animals, so they clean our environment and are termed cleaners or recyclers.
• Harmful Fungi:
i. Food Spoilage: Fungi are mainly saprophytes. They cause tremendous amount of spoilage of
food stuff.
ii. Spoilage of Organic material: Many Fungi spoil leather goods, wool, books, timber, cotton etc.
iii. Plant disease: Fungi cause different diseases to plants, destroy agricultural crop, fruits and
ornaments. Some diseases are Rust, Smut, Downy and Powdery Mildew.
• Human diseases: Fungi cause a number of diseases in human being e.g. Aspergillosis caused by
Aspergellus. It is ear, lungs disease Moniliasis caused by Monilia, it is skin, mouth gum diseases.
• 1. The body of fungi is called
• a. mycelium b. Hyphae
• c. body d. None of them
• 2. fungi are best decomposer along with
• a. Virus b. Bacteria
• c. Ferns d. Vulture
• 3. which one of the following is not plant like character found in Fungi
• a. Cell Wall b. Presence of Chitin
• c. Non-motile d. without cellulose
• 4. According to the mode of nutrition fungi are
• a. Autotrophic b. Phytotrphic
• C. Heterotrophic d. Chemotrophic
• 5. In fungi during nuclear mitosis nuclear membrane does not break and spindle is found within nucleus this condition is
known as
• a. Nuclear Meiosis b. Amitosis
• c. Nuclear mitosis d. A & B
• 6. In fungi when multinucleated stage and free swim cytoplasmic condition is observed called
• a. Coenocyte b. Choanocyte
• c. Amoebocyte d. Leucocyte
• 7. in fungi a single mycelium in one day can produce
• a. Half kilometer of new hyphae b. Two kilometer of new Hyphae
• c. one Kilometer of new hyphae d. Three Kilometer of new hyphae
• 8. Armillaria is pathogenic fungus has been measured upto
• a. 16 Hectares b. 18 Hectares
• c. 14 Hectares d. 15 Hectares
• 9. the root like hyphae in fungi called
• a. Rhizoid b. Rhizome
• c. Nodules d. None of them
• 10. Fungi are the principal decomposers of
• a. Cellulose and Pectin b. Cellulose and Lignin
• c. Lignin and Pectin d. None
• 11. Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients directly from the living host cytoplasm with the help of
special hyphae tips called
• a. Rhizoid b. Rhizome
• c. haustoria d. Roots
• 12. Some fungi are predators like Oyster Mushroom paralyse the
• a. Nematodes b. Cestodes
• c. Earthworm d. nereis
•
• 13. The relationship between Fungi and algae is called
• a. Mycorrhizae b. Lichen
• c. Parasite d. Predators
• 14. Fungus protects, the algal partner from
• a. Strong light and wet environment b. Weak light and wet Environment
• c. Strong light and desiccation d. Weak light and desiccation
• 15. Lichen is also a relationship between fungi and other besides algae
• a. Bacteria b. Cyanobacteria
• c. Marchantia d. Fern
• 16. Lichen are very important ecologically behave as air pollution indicators
• a. Physical indicator b. Chemical indicator
• c. Bio indicator d. All of them
• 17. the relationship between Fungi and Roots of vascular plants is called
• a. Mycorrhizae b. Parasitism
• predators d. Lichen
• 18. In association fungal hyphae get from plants the organic
• a. Oxygen b. Hydrogen
• c. Carbon d. Nitrogen
• 19. In endomycorrihzae the fungal hyphae are
• a. Remain outside the cells b. Penetrate in outer cells of root
• c. Penetrate in inner cells d. Extend between cells but do not penetrate the cell
walls of root
• 20. in Ectomycorrhizae the fungal hyphae are
• a. Remain outside the cells b. Penetrate in outer cells of root
• c. Penetrate in inner cells d. Extend between cells but don’t penetrate the cell
walls of the roots.
• 21. Fungi can tolerate a wide range of PH from
• a. 4 – 6 b. 2 – 9
• c. 3 – 7 d. 9 – 12
• 22. Fungi store extra food in mycelium in the form of
• a. Lipid b. Glycogen
• c. Both A& B d. Starch
• 23. All of them following groups of fungi show sexual reproduction except
• a. Zygomycota b. Deuteromycota
• c. Ascomycota d. Basidiomycota
• 24. Spores in Fungi produced in reproductive structure called
• a. Gametangia b. Plasmogamy
• c. Sporangia d. Conidiophore
• 25. The spores are non motile no need of water for dispersal and
• a. Diploid b. Triploid
• c. Tetraploid d. Haploid
• 26. Conidia are non-motile, asexual spores which are cut off at the end of modified
hyphae called conidiophores which is formed in the form of
• a. Chain b. Threads
• c. Beads d. None
• 27. The condition of asexual reproduction in which mycelium splits in pieces called
• a. Chain b. Conidia
• c. Fragmentation d. Spores
• 28. The process in which during asexual reproduction an outgrowth is form called
• a. spores b. Conidia
• c. Budding d. Fragmentation
• 29. The fusion of nuclei called
• a. Plasmogamy b. Karyogamy
• c. Plasmotomy d. Gamogony
• 30. The fusion of cytoplasm is called
• a. Plasmogamy b. Karyogamy
• c. Plasmotomy d. Gamogony
• 31. the cell having two nuclei of different genetic types is called
• a. Dikaryotic b. heterokaryotic
• c. Monokaryotic d. A & B
• 32. The division of fungi based on
• a. nutrition b. Growth
• c. Reproductive Structure d. None
• 33. The smallest group of fungi is
• a. Ascomycota b. Zygomycota
• c. Basidiomycota d. Deuteromycota
• 34. The prostrate hyphae in mucor are called
• a. Rhizoid b. Sporangiophore
• c. Archegoniophore d. none of them
• 35. The erect hyphae of mucor is called
• a. Archegoniophore b. Antheridiophores
• c. Sporangiophore d. Sporophyll
• 36. the inner dome shaped portion in sporangium of Mucor is called
• a. Hormogonia b. Heterocyst
• c. Columella d. None
• 37. In Ascomycota total number of species are
• a. 40,000 b. 30,000
• c. 20,000 d. 10,000
• 38. All of them belong to Ascomycota except
• a. Yeast b. mold
• c. Rhizopus d. Truffles
• 39. Bread mold belongs to
• a. Zygomycota b. Ascomycota
• c. Basidiomycota d. Deuteromycota
• 40. Cleistothecium, Perithecium, apothecium are
• a. Basidiocarp b. Ascocarp
• c. Sporangiocarp d. none
• 41. in Ascomycota asexual reproduction take place by
• a. Spores b. Fragmentation
• c. Conidia d. Zoospores
• 42. the female gametangia of Ascomycota is called Ascogonium with a beak like structure known as
• a. Trichus b. Trichogyne
• c. Cleistothecium d. Perithecium
• 43. After burst of Ascus ascocarp are thrown as far as
• a. 40cm b. 25cm
• c. 30 cm d. 10cm
• 44. Most of the ascocarp have a length of
• a. 20 micrometer b. 30micrometer
• c. 10micrometer d. 50 micrometer
• 45. The ascocarp with open cup is called
• a. Cleistothecium b. Apothecium
• c. Perithecium d. None
• 46. The ascocarp with closed cup is called
• a. Cleistothecium b. Apothecium
• c. Perithecium d. None
• 47. The ascocarp with small opening is called
• a. Apothecium b. Perithecium
• c. Cleistothecium d. All of them
• 48. Candida is a yeast causes
• a. Vaginal infection b. Rectal Infection
• c. Anal Infection d. All of them
• 49. the known species of Basidiomycetes are
• a. 15,000 b. 17,000
• c. 16,000 d. 14,000
• 50. Mushrooms belong to
• a. Zygomycota b. Ascomycota
• c. Basidiomycota d. Deuteromycota
• 51. Rust and Smuts are the pathogens belongs to the group of
• a. Zygomycota b. Ascomycota
• c. Basidiomycota d. Fungi Imperfecti
• 52. Basidium is the reproductive structure of
• a. Basidiomycota b. Zygomycota
• c. Ascomycota d. Deuteromycota
• 53. The size of the Mushroom with cap is
• a. 6.5 cm b. 7.5 cm
• c. 8.5 cm d. 9.5 cm
• 54. the quantity of spores in mushroom liberated per hour is
• a. 30 millions b. 20millions
• c. 10millions d. 40 million
• 55. The biological name of Button mushroom is
• a. Agaricus campestris b. Aspergillus
• c. Penicillium d. Yeast
• 56. the known species of Imperfecti are
• a. 18,000 b. 17,000
• c. 16,000 d. 15,000
• 57. The condition in which different type of genetic types are combined
• a. Sexuality b. Perisexuality
• c. Parasexuality d. None
• 58. The economically important genera of fungi are
• a. Penicillium and Aspergillus b. Penicillium and yeast
• c. Aspergillus and Mushroom d. Yeast and Aspergillus
• 59. Which one of the following use for fermenting soya sauce and soya paste
• a. Penicillium b. Aspergillus
• c. Yeast d. Mushroom
• 60. Following characteristics enable fungi to live on land except
• a. Hyphae which absorb water and dissolved water also anchor the fungi
• b. Thick-walled drought resistance spores
• c. Spores are flagellated
• d. instead of flagellated gametes special gametes are produce not required water
• 61. The most famous edible fungi is
• a. Penicillium b. Yeast
• c. mushroom d. none of them
• 62. The basal Slender hollow part of mucor during sexual reproduction is called
• a. Suspensor b. Hypophysis
• c. Gametangium d. Primetangium
• 63. The fungi uses in baking industry is called
• a. Cheese b. Mushroom
• c. Chloromycetin d. Yeast
• 64. Which one is not a disease produced by fungi
• a. Aspergillosis b. Moniliasis
• c. Ringworm d. Malaria
• 65. Rust and smut of wheat, rice and cereals are caused by
• a. fungi b. Stigeoclonium
• c. Algae d. Bacteria
• 66. Fungi is synthesized a range of vitamins belong to
• a. A b. C
• c. D d. B
• 67. Aspergillosis is a disease affect
• a. Ear and Lungs b. Ear and Eye
• c. Lungs and Liver d. Stomach and Kidney
• 68. Moniliasis is a disease affect
• a. Skin , mouth and gums b. Skin, Nails, and gums
• c. Mouth, liver and Stomach d. None of them
• 69. Histolplsmolysis is a serious infection of
• a. Liver b. Lungs
• c. Kidney d. Brain
• 70. Rhodotroula grows on shower curtains commonly known as
• a. Yeast b. mushroom
• c. Pink Yeast d. Aspergillosis
71. The condition of mycelia which is similar nor morphologically but also differ
in physiologically is called
a. Homothallic b. Heterothallic
c. Heterotrichous d. Heterospory