INDEX

TOPICS NAME PAGE NUMBER

01 Introduction to biochemistry 01
02 Enzymes 07
03 Carbohydrate Metabolism 19
04 Lipid Metabolism 60
05 Biological Oxidation 84
06 Protein and amino acid metabolism 95
07 Nucleic acid metabolism 110
08 Kidney function test 133
09 Liver function test 145
10 Lipid profile test 154
11 Immunochemical techniques 161
12 Electrolytes 172
 Introduction to biochemistry
Cell and its biochemical organization-

CELL-

Definition:

Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

Two types of cells:

Prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes.

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
Do not carry well developed nucleus. Well developed nucleus
Eg: Bacteria,
Ameoba,
Clamydomonas.
Simple celled Multicellular.
Do not have sub-cellular organelles. Have sub-cellular organelles (Mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, Ribosomes, Cytoplasma, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Peroxyzomes.

Cell constituents are:

1. Plasma membrane.
2. Mitochondria.
3. Endoplasmic reticulum.
4. Golgi apparatus.
5. Lysozomes.
6. Peroxysomes.
7. Nucleus.
8. Cytoplasm.

Cell Constituents Explanation Function

PLASMA MEMBRANE Outer most covering of the cell. Transport of ions (ca+, Na+, K+,
Made up of proteins, lipids and Biomolecules, glucose).
carbohydrates. Carry receptors for hormones and
Lipids present in plasma membrane neurotransmitters.
is phospholipid.
Lipids are bilayered.
Phospholipid have head and tail
region. Head is hydrophilic polar
and tail is hydrophobic non-polar.
Sometimes glycolipids and
cholesterol are also present in the
plasma membrane.

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 It resembles like fluid mosaic
model.
Proteins two types, one is extrinsic-
outside of plasma membrane.
Other is intrinsic- Inside of plasma
membrane.
MITOCHONDRIA Power house of the cell.
Double membrane structure.
Inner membrane folded in the form
of cristae.
Centre part is called as matrix.
ENDOPLASMIC Tubular in structure.
RETICULUM Two types, Rough ER and Smooth
ER.
Due to presence of Ribosomes
Rough ER is named so.
GOLGI APPARATUS Tubular in shape.
Present almost in all cells in our
body (250 types of cells).
Matured RBC do not contain
mitochondria and golgi apparatus.
LYSOZOMES Vesicular organelles (mostly round
like).
Formed from golgi apparatus.
Membrane of lysozomes has more
thickest membrane.
Carry hydrolytic (Important role in
destruction) enzymes.
PEROXYSOMES Resemble like lysosomes.
Synthesized from either SER/ from
pre-existing peroxysomes.
NUCLEUS Nucleolus (Site for DNA replication
and transcription), chromatin
(Thread like structure).
Germ cells reproduce somatic
cells= mitosis and do not
reproduce.
Spherical in shape.
Covered by nuclear membrane.
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ATP synthesis.
Electron transport chain occurs in
inner membrane.
Oxidative phosphorylation occurs and
it is also a Part of urea cycle and heme
synthesis.
RER- Protein synthesis and secretion.
SER- Steroid hormones, Phospholipids
has been synthesized.
Metabolism of various forms of
compounds takes place.
Important role in post-transcriptional
modification.
Sorting of proteins.
Export of proteins.
Intra cellular digestion of
Macromolecules (Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Nucleic acids, Proteins).
Sucidal bags.
Destruction of bacteria.
Hydrolysis of nucleic acid, protein,
glycosaminoglycans, glycolipids,
sphingolipids.
Carry peroxidase enzyme, catalyse
enzyme etc.
These enzymes play important role in
detoxification.
Metabolism of peroxide and oxidation
of long chain fatty acids.
Storage of DNA, replication and repair
of DNA, transcription and post-
transcriptional processing.
Nucleolus present inside the nucleus
helpful in synthesis of rRNA and
formation of ribosomes.
2
 The remaining site of nucleolus is
filled in chromatin.
CYTOPLASM/ Granulated structures.
CYTOSOL All the sub cellular organelles are
embedded.
Part of Gluconeogenesis.
Site for most of the metabolic
activities like HMP pathway, urea
cycle, glycolysis and synthesis of
purins and pyramidins.

TRANSPORT PROCESS ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANES:

Biological membranes are semi-permeable membrane (allow only certain into the cell).

Two types of transport process-

1. Passive transport- It is of two types Simple diffusion and Facilitated diffusion.

2. Active transport- It is of two types primary active transport and secondary active transport ( co-
transport and Counter transport)

TRANSPORT PROCESS EXPLANATION

PASSIVE TRANSPORT Lipid soluble molecules can easily transport from intracellular to
extracellular.
Ions are being transported without utilization of
ATP/carrier/energy.
Ions move from higher concentration to lower concentration.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION Ions move from higher concentration to lower concentration.
Lipophillic (lipid loving substances) can be transported.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION Other name is uniport and carrier medicated diffusion.
Ions itself cannot be translocated for higher concentration to
lower concentration.
It is transported through carrier which is located on the
membrane of cell.
Water soluble substances can be transported by this mechanism
because plasma membrane is made of only lipids and proteins.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT The molecules move against concentration gradient and external
energy sources required (ATP) is referred as active transport.
Eg: Ions( Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++, H+), biomolecules, aminoacids are
transported.
PRIMARY ACTIVE In this energy is derived from hydrolysis of ATP.
TRANSPORT Ions ( Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++, H+) are tanslocated but not
biomolecules due to large size.
Sodium-potassium pump is present.
Hydrolysis of ATP is converted into ADP and inorganic phosphate
by means of ATPase enzyme activity.
Na+ translocated to outside whereas K+ is translocated inside by
means of Na+ K+ pump.

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 It has great physiological significance. The Na+K+ gradient
developed by this pump in cells controls cell volume.
SECONDARY ACTIVE It uses energy generated by electrochemical gradient.
TRANSPORT It is not directly coupled with hydrolysis of ATP.
CO-TRANSPORT Both substances moves simultaneously across the membrane in
the same direction.
Eg: Transport of sodium and glucose to intestinal mucosal cell
from gut.
Co-transport is also called as Symport.
COUNTER TRANSPORT It is also called as antiport.
Both substances move simultaneously in opposite direction.
Eg: Transport of Na+ and H+ which occurs in renal proxiamal
convoluted tubules and exchange of Cl- and HCO3- in RBC.

ENERGY RICH COMPOUNDS:

Certain compounds are encountered in the biological system which on hydrolysis yield
energy.
Energy rich compounds is usually applied to substances which passes sufficient free energy to
liberate at least 7 cal/mole at pH 7.
All the high energy compounds when hydrolyzed liberate more energy than that of ATP. These
includes phosphoneol pyruvate, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, phosphocreatine etc.
Most of the high energy compounds contain phosphate group (exception acetyl co-a). Hence
they are called high energy phosphate compounds.

CLASSIFICATION OF HIGH ENERGY COMPOUNDS-

CLASS BOND EXAMPLE
Pyrophosphate ATP, Pyrophosphate
Acid Phosphates 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate,
Carbonyl phosphate.
Enol Phosphates Acetyl Phosphate
Phosphoenol pyruvate.
Thioesters Acetyl Co-A, Acyl Co-A.
Guanido phosphates Phosphocreatine,
(phosphogens) Phosphoarginine.

The high energy compounds posses acid anhydride bonds (mostly phosphoanhydride bonds)
which are formed by condensation of two acidic groups or related compounds. These bonds are
called high energy bonds since the free energy is liberated when these bonds are hydrolysed.
Symbol ( ) to represent high energy bond.

ATP:

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 It is a high energy compound due to the presence of 2-phosphoanhydride
bonds in triphosphate unit.

It serves as the energy currency of the cell.

Hydrolysis of ATP releases large amount of energy. ATP+H20--------ADP + Pi (7.3 cal).

Energy liberated is utilized for various process like muscle contraction, active transport
etc.

It acts as donar of high energy phosphate to low energy compounds to make them
energy rich.

ADP can accept high energy phosphate from coumpounds possessing higher free
energy content to form ATP.

ATP-ADP cycle- fundamental basis of energy exchange reactions in living system. They
act as link between catabolism and anabolism in biological system.

SYNTHESIS OF ATP- 2 ways:

1. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.
2. SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION.

SYNTHESIS OF ATP EXPLANATION

OXIDATIVE
PHOSPHORYLATION
SUBSTRATE LEVEL
PHOSPHORYLATION
Major source of ATP in all organisms.
Linked with mitochondria ETC.
Phosphocreatine or creatine phosphate stored in muscel of
brain as an energy rich compound.
Directly synthesized during substrate oxidation.
High energy compounds such as PEP, 1,3-Bisphosphate,
Glycerate, Succinyl C0-A transfer high energy phosphate to
ultimately produce ATP.

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