Topic 5: Biodiversity: Value of Consumptive and Sustainable Forestry and Timber Production

Productive Use 1. Sustainable Logging Practices

2. Importance of Preserving Forest Diversity
Uses of BDV
1. Food Ecotourism and Biodiversity Conservation
2. Medicine 1. Economic benefits of Ecotourism
3. Fuel 2. Promoting conservation through responsible
4. Agriculture tourism
5. Logging
6. Hunting and Fishing Sustainable Practices
7. Biotechnology 1. Conservation and Protected area sustainable
8. Ecotourism 2. Agriculture and Agroecology
9. Aquaculture 3. Responsible tourism and community
10. Forest Management involvement

What is BDV? Examples of Efficient Biodiversity utilization

Describes the richness and variety of life on earth from 1. Sustainable forestry initiatives
micro to macro organisms. It is the most complex and 2. Community-led conservation projects
important feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life
would not sustain. Balancing Consumptive and Productive Use
1. Synergies
Significance of BDV Conservation Economic Benefits: Productive use of natural resources
1. Ecosystem Stability and Resilience can generate income and economic growth through
2. Ecosystem Services activities such as agriculture, forestry, and fishing.
3. Genetic diversity for adaptation Conservation: Some forms of productive use can
4. Medicine and Pharmaceutical promote conservation efforts
5. Cultural and ethical values Innovation: Productive use often drives innovation in
technology and practices
Economic Value 2. Trade-offs
1. Food Production Environmental Impact: Excessive productive use
2. Pharmaceuticals without proper regulation can lead to environmental
3. Fisheries degradation.
4. Global Trade
Biodiversity Loss: The pursuit of productive use may
Impacts of Biodiversity prioritize certain species or resources, leading to the
1. Overexploitation and threats decline or extinction of others.
2. Habitat destruction
3. Biodiversity loss Social Equity: Consumptive use, such as hunting or
gathering of wild plants, can be vital for some
Ethical Considerations communities’ livelihoods.
1. Sustainable consumptive use practices
2. Animal welfare Policy and Regulatory Frameworks
3. Indigenous knowledge and sustainable International agreements, such as the CBD and CITES,
harvesting along with national biodiversity strategies, are vital tools
- Indigenous communities around the world have developed in safeguarding biodiversity. The CBD focuses on global
sustainable harvesting techniques that ensure the long-term conservation goals and equitable resource use, while
availability of resources while minimizing negative impacts CITES regulates international trade in endangered
on ecosystems. Examples: Traditional Amazonian species.
Agroforestry On the other hand, National biodiversity strategies
outline specific conservation measures tailored to each
Sustainable Agriculture and Crop Diversity country's needs and circumstances.
1. Importance of diversity crops
2. Benefits of crop rotation and polyculture

Conservation Strategies
1. Protected Areas and Sustainable Resource
Management
These strategies involve designating and managing
protected areas, implementing sustainable resource use
practices, promoting eco-tourism, and regulating
activities within these areas to preserve
biodiversity.
EXAMPLE: Yellowstone National Park (USA):
Yellowstone is a well-known example of a protected
area where sustainable resource management is applied.
2. Community-based conservation initiatives
These initiatives focus on engaging local communities in
resource management, integrating traditional knowledge,
diversifying livelihoods,
creating community-managed forests, building capacity,
and protecting legal rights to ensure sustainable
conservation efforts while empowering local
populations.
EXAMPLE: Community Forest Management in Nepal:
Nepal has implemented community forestry programs,
granting local communities’ ownership and management
responsibilities over forests.
Role of Education and Awareness
Balancing consumptive and protective use of natural
resources through education and awareness involves
strategies like teaching environmental values, running
public awareness campaigns, providing training in
sustainable practices, promoting eco-friendly tourism,
sharing indigenous knowledge, engaging in policy
advocacy, creating reporting systems, encouraging
sustainable consumer choices, and building partnerships.
TOPIC 6: Values of Biodiversity
Values of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity provides a variety of environmental
services from its species and ecosystems that are
essential at global, regional and local levels.
 Loss of biodiversity contributes to climatic change.
 Forest converts carbon dioxide into carbon and
oxygen.
 Loss of forest cover due to industrialization which
contributes to ‘Green House Effect’ due to release of
carbon dioxide and other gases.
 Green House Effect leads to Global warming which
results in rising sea-levels submerging the low-lying
areas in the world and causing atmospheric changes.
Ethical / Moral Values
People have related biodiversity to the very existence of
the human race through spiritual and religious beliefs.
Ethical values of biodiversity are based on the
importance of Protecting all life forms.
Most religious and secular creeds believe that all form of
life have the right to exist on Earth. There are several
cultural, moral, and ethical values, associated with the
sanctity of all forms of life. Indian civilizations have
over several generations, preserved nature through local
traditions.
These sacred groves around ancient sacred sites and
temples act as gene banks for wild plants
People have related biodiversity to the very existence of
the human race through spiritual and religious beliefs.
Sacred groves are the traditionally conserve forests
dedicated to the local deity. Ex. Mawsmai at
Cherrapunji, Deodar in Shimla, Devarabana, Hulidevana
Kadu etc.
SACRED LANDSCAPES
These are the areas of traditionally conserved land with
natural features of their ancestral deities. It helps in the
preservation of natural soil. It helps in forestation, and
such forests provide habitats for a variety of wild
animals.
Ex. Scared Gangetic river between Haridwar and
Hrishikesh where fishing is prohibited. Biligiri hills,
Baba budangeri in Karnataka.
Sacred Species
Species of cultural values where certain plants and
animals are protected traditionally and continue
to be conserved by man. Ancient mythology associates
sacred species to GODS so that no one harms them.
Ex. Tulsi, Banyan tree, Cobra,
Cow etc.
AESTHETIC VALUES
The appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its
inherent value and beauty, as well as for the contribution
it makes to our knowledgeour aesthetic, imagination and
creativity- are some reasons to preserve it. Quite apart
from killing wildlife for food, it is important as a tourist
attraction.
• Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of
nature.
• Sit in a forest and listen to the bird’s chirp.
• Watch a spider weave its complex web. Observe a fish
feeding. It’s just magnificent and fascinating.
In India, particularly, our history and culture is replete
with plant and animal image. Symbols from wild species
such as the lion of Hinduism, the elephant of Buddhism, with the possibility of reaching 10,000 times the
and the vehicles of several deities are animals, that have background rate in the next century if present trends
been venerated for thousands of years. The sacred Basil persist.
or the 'Tulsi' has grown in the courtyards of each
household for centuries for their medicinal values. 2. Irreversible Loss: Human activities are identified as
potential drivers of an irreversible loss of Earth' s
GOALS biodiversity, as proposed by the Millennium
 Protect and Preserve Biodiversity Ecosystem Assessment.
 Contribute to the sustainability of our planet.
 Ensure the well-being of humanity and other life 3. Climate Change as a Threat: Accelerated climate
forms. change is recognized as a significant threat to
biodiversity in various reports, including the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and reports from
TOPIC 7: BIODIVERSITY THREATS IN the United Nations Environmental Programme and
GENERAL the IUCN.
Keystone Species & Biodiversity
The IUCN introduced a threat classification system to
‘Keystone Species’ was introduced by Robert T. Paine in standardize terminology for threats to biodiversity,
1969. making it easier to compare and generalize data across
ecosystems. It includes threats from alien species,
2 basic criteria of keystone species have been genetic material, and interactions among native species.
proposed by Mills et al.
1. The presence of keystone species is crucial in A comprehensive classification of direct threats to
maintaining the organization and diversity of their biodiversity proposed by Salfasky et al.
ecological communities. 1. Residential and Commercial Development
2. These species are exceptional, relative to the rest of 2. Agriculture and Aquaculture
the community, in their importance 3. Energy Production and Mining
4. Transportation and Service Corridors
The leading examples of keystone species are: 5. Biological Resource Use
1. Enhydra lutris (sea otters) regulates the 6. Human Intrusions and Disturbance
Strongylocentrotus spp. (sea urchins) density which feed 7. Natural System Modifications
over kelps, the giant algae. 8. Invasive and Problematic Species and Genes
2. Solenopsis geminate (Fire ants) exclusion increases 9. Pollution
the number of arthropods which are harmful to 10. Geological Events and Climate Change and
agriculture. 3. Humming bird pollinators. Severe Weather
4. Terborgh proposed the palm nuts, figs and nectars as
keystone resources because of their extreme significance
for fruit and nectar eating species of tropical forest like
the primates, squirrels, rodents, and many birds.
5. Caster canadensis (North American beavers) make
dams which can change hydrological and
biogeochemical factors of the region to alter the
productivity.
6. Cornitermes cumulans (Brazilian termites) make The stress classification for biodiversity proposed by
bulky, rich and distinctively designed mounds which has Salafsky et al
wide range of obligate users.
7. Sea urchins grazing prevents the transition from 1. Ecosystem / community stresses
encrusting algae dominated community to a large, fleshy 2. Ecosystem conservation
algae dominated one. 3. Ecosystem degradation
8. Thomomys bottae (Pocket gophers) maintain mountain 4. Indirect ecosystem effects
meadow communities. 5. Species stresses
6. Species mortality
Threats to Biodiversity 7. Species disturbance
8. Indirect species effects
1. Escalating Extinction Rate: The current extinction 9. Ecosystem conservation
rate is approaching 1,000 times the background rate,
Threats to Global Biodiversity
1. Habitat loss through degradation and
fragmentation
2. Population growth and Poverty
3. Over exploitation of natural resources
4. Invasive species
5. Weak enforcement of law
6. Climate change and Pollution
7. Disease
8. Background extinction
9. Stochastic events and Hunting for food
10. Habitat is lost through conversion to agriculture
and housing
Threats to global biodiversity
 Extinct - A taxon is said to be ‘extinct’ when there
is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has
died.
 Extinct in the wild - A taxon is said to be ‘extinct in
the wild’ when it is known only to survive in
captivity, or as a neutralized population outside its
historic habitat.
 Critically Endangered - A taxon is said to be
‘critically endangered’ when it is facing high risk of
extinction in the wild in immediate future.
 Endangered - A taxon is said to be ‘endangered’
when it is facing very high risk of extinction in the
wild in near future.
 Vulnerable - A taxon is said to be ‘vulnerable’
when it is facing very high risk of endangered in the
wild in near future.
 Near to threat -A taxon is said to be ‘near to threat’
when it is likely to become endangered in near
future
 least concern - A taxon with lowest risk. These are
the widespread and abundant taxa.
 Data deficient - A taxon is said to be ‘data
deficient’ when there is inadequate information to
make any direct or indirect assessment of its risk of
extinction.
 Not evaluated - A taxon is said to be ‘not evaluated’
when it has not yet been assessed against the above
criteria.
Conservation Strategies
Conservation strategies are broadly classified into two
categories: in-situ conservation (conserving species in
their natural habitats) and ex-situ conservation
(conserving species outside their natural habitats). Both
approaches are considered complementary for effective
biodiversity conservation
 In-situ conservation can be defined as “the
conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and
the maintenance and recovery of viable populations
of species in their natural surroundings and, in the
case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the
surroundings where they have developed their
distinctive properties”
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries:
 The Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary
 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
 Ranthambore National Park
 Kaziranga National Park
 Jim Corbett National Park
 The Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary
 Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
 The Keoladeo Ghana Bird Sanctuary
 The Sasan Gir National Park
 Kanha National Park
Biosphere Reserves
The concept of Biosphere Reserves was launched in
1975 as a part UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
Programme. A biosphere reserve should have following
components.
1. Core zone - The fully protected and natural areas
which is least influenced by human activities. This
area is under legal protection and entry is only
allowed with permission for some specific purpose.
Destructive sampling for scientific investigation is
not allowed.
2. Buffer zone - This surrounds the key areas which
keeps a wide range of resource use strategies, and
activities related to research and education.
3. Transition zone - The outermost region of
biosphere reserve which is characterized by the
active involvement of local people reserve
management. In this area activities like settlements,
cropping, forestry, recreation and other economic
activities which are in harmony with biodiversity
conservation are allowed.
World Network of Biosphere Reserves Based on the
UNESCO Man and The Biosphere (Mab)
Programme List
About 651 of biosphere reserves have been recognized
throughout the world in 120 countries and have been
included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserve.
The Indian Government has established 18 Biosphere
Reserves in India which are roughly corresponding to
IUCN category V protected areas. Nine of them are the
part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based
on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Program list
Sacred Groves - The sacred grove or sacred forest is a
traditional strategy for the biodiversity protection mostly
practiced in India and in some of the Asian countries.
These are the small forest patches protected by the tribal
communities due to some religious belief. There is no
protection of sacred groves through federal legislation.
These are either protected by the related communities or
some NGOs working with villagers.
Ex-situ Conservation
The ex-situ conservation is generally used to safeguard
populations that are potentially under threat and need to
be collected and conserved in gene banks in form of
seeds, live plants, tissues, cells and/or DNA materials.
The principal aim of ex-situ conservation is to maintain
seeds and other germplasm materials alive as long as
possible and to reduce the frequency of regeneration that
may cause the loss of genetic diversity.
Botanical gardens and Zoological parks
A Botanical garden is a place where plants are grown
and displayed for the purposes of research and
education. The botanical gardens which are specialized
in trees are also called as arboreta.
The main objectives of botanical gardens are:
i. Ex-situ conservation and propagation of important
threatened plant species;
ii. Serve as a centre of Excellence for conservation,
research and training; and
iii. Build public awareness through education on plant
diversity and need for conservation.
Gene banks
Gene banks are essential for ex-situ conservation and
preservation of genetic resources.
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR): - Located in New Delhi, NBPGR plays a
crucial role in preserving seeds of both wild species and
cultivated plant varieties.
National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources:
- Located in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, this institution
maintains stocks of genetic material for various fish
species.
Seed Banking Techniques
- Seed preservation techniques involve storing dried
seeds at low temperatures.
- The longevity of seeds is influenced by factors like
temperature, seed moisture content, and relative
humidity.
CONSERVATION OF RECALCITRANT SEEDS
Recalcitrant seed-bearing plants and those that are
clonally propagated are conserved as live plants in field
gene banks.
- Some plants produce recalcitrant seeds that cannot be
stored using traditional seed banking methods.
CYROPRESERVATION
- Cryopreservation is a technique that involves
preserving living tissues at extremely low temperatures,
typically around -196ºC, using liquid nitrogen.
- This method effectively suspends mitotic and
metabolic activities in the preserved tissues.
Benefits of Cryopreservation:
- Cryopreservation methods provide greater security for
the long-term and cost-effective conservation of plant
genetic resources.
- This includes the preservation of species with
recalcitrant seeds, which would otherwise be at risk.
Applications of Cryopreservation:
- Cryopreservation has been successfully applied to
various plant components, including meristem, zygotic
and somatic embryos, pollen, protoplast cells, and
suspension cultures.
- This technique has proven effective in preserving a
wide range of plant species.
Molecular or DNA level conservation of germplasm
(biotechnology)
Species with difficult-to-store seeds or those that can
only be clonally propagated can be conserved through
biotechnological methods, as suggested by Engelmann
and Engels.
Regeneration Process and Genetic Erosion
- Regeneration is a critical step and a major challenge in
gene bank management.
- It is during this process that there is the highest
probability of genetic erosion.
- Genetic erosion can be monitored by collecting
information on genetic composition and spatial genetic
structure.
Education and Awareness
- Education and awareness efforts are aimed at
improving understanding, skills, and influencing
behavior related to conservation.
Formal Education:
- Formal education involves enhancing the knowledge
and skills of students in formal degree programs.
Training:
- Training focuses on enhancing knowledge, skills, and The Philippines’s species are among the world’s top 10
information exchange for practitioners, stakeholders, and in terms of endemism. In terms of terrestrial vertebrates,
relevant individuals. the Philippines is known to host 1,238 species of which
Awareness and Communications: 618 (or 50%) is endemic.
- Raising environmental awareness and providing
information to the public through various media. The country hosts more than 52,177 described species.
Law and Policy From 1997 to 2016, 120 species of wildlife fauna and
- Education and awareness efforts also extend to actions 170 species of wildlife flora has been discovered.
aimed at developing, changing, influencing, and
implementing formal legislation, regulations, and Described Species
voluntary standards related to conservation. - also known as scientifically described species, they are
species of organisms that have been formally
LEGISLATION documented and named by scientists according to
Global Legislation: established taxonomic rules and procedures.
- Efforts to promote global conventions on biodiversity, Key criteria and steps in making a species a
such as the Convention on International Trade in described species: (9)
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 1. Discovery and Collection
National Legislation: 2. Taxonomic Study
- Advocacy for or against government laws at the 3. Species Description
national level, such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act. 4. Type Specimen
State/Provincial Legislation: 5. Peer Review
- Involvement in state or provincial ballot initiatives 6. Publication
related to conservation. 7. Naming
- Providing data and information to state policy makers 8. Documentation
to inform decision-making. 9. Verification
Local Legislation:
- Development of local zoning regulations to ensure
responsible land use.
- Implementation of countryside laws and species
protection laws to safeguard local flora and fauna.
Tribal Legislation:
- Creation of tribal laws specific to indigenous
communities to protect natural resources and
biodiversity on tribal lands. Endemic Species
- organisms naturally found in a specific geographic area or
Compliance and Enforcement region and are not naturally found anywhere else in the
Livelihood, Economic, and Other Incentives: world. Some key characteristics of endemic species include:
- Using economic and other incentives to influence - Geographical Restriction
behavior in favor of conservation efforts. - Isolation
- Incentives can be designed to benefit livelihoods and - High Conservation Value
promote responsible practices. - Biodiversity Hotspots

Topic 8: Facts and Figures on Described and A large percentage of species in the Philippines are
Endemic Species endemic.

Philippine Biodiversity Terrestrial Mammas (Tamaraw) – 65%

1 of the 17 Megadiverse Countries Birds (Philippine Cockatoo) – 36%
Although relatively small among the 17 megadiverse Reptiles (Philippine Crocodile) – 69%
countries, the Philippines has the greatest concentration Amphibians (Big-eyed frog) – 81%
of unique species per unit area in the world. Flora (Pitcher Plant) – 51%

60-70% of the World’s Biodiversity Philippines has Plants

more than 52,177 described species, half of which are  One-third of the more than 9,250 vascular plant
endemic or found nowhere else on earth. species native to the Philippines are endemic.
 Plant endemism in the hotspot is mostly
Top 10 in terms of Endemism concentrated at the species level.
 There are no endemic plant families and 26 endemic amphibian, the panther flying frog (Rhacophorus
genera. pardalis), has special adaptations for gliding, including
 Ginger, Palms, Orchids, Begonias, Pandans, extra flaps of skin and webbing between fingers and toes
Dipterocarps to generate lift during glides.

Birds
 Over 530 bird species found in the Philippines
Hotspot
 About 185 of these are endemic (35 percent) and
over 60 are threatened
 Like other taxa, birds exhibit a strong pattern of
regional endemism
 The hotspot also has a single endemic bird family,
the Rhabdornithidae, represented by the Philippine
creepers (Rhabdornis spp.)
Bird Life International has identified seven Endemic
Bird Areas (EBAs) in these hotspots:
Invertebrates
About 70%of the PH nearly 21, 000 recorded insect
species are found only in this hotspot. About 1/3 of the
915 butterflies found here are endemic to the PH and
over 110 of the more than 130 species of tiger beetles are
found nowhere else.
Freshwater Fishes
The Philippines has more than 280 inland fish, including
nine endemic genera and more than 65 endemic species,
many of which are confined to single lakes. An example
is Sardinella tawilis, a freshwater sardine found only in
Taal Lake.

In conclusion, the facts and figures on described and endemic species

Mindoro, Luzon, Eastern Visayas, Cebu, Negros,
Palawan, Mindanao
Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi)
 best-known bird species in the Philippines and is
critically endangered.
 the second-largest eagle in the world
Other threatened endemic species:
Negros Bleeding Heart (Gallicolumba keayi)
Visayan Wrinkled Hornbill (Aceros walden)
Scarlet-Collared Flowerpecker (Dicaeum retrocinctum)
Philippine Cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia)
in the Philippines emphasize its significance as a biodiversity hotspot.
The country is home to a vast number of described species,
showcasing the richness of its natural heritage. Furthermore, the high
percentage of endemic species, species found nowhere else on Earth,
underlines the Philippines' ecological distinctiveness. Preserving this
biodiversity is not only crucial for the country's own environmental
balance but also essential for global conservation efforts. As we
recognize the unique beauty and ecological value of the Philippines,
it becomes imperative to continue efforts in conservation, sustainable
practices, and awareness-raising to protect this invaluable natural
treasure for future generations.

Mammal
at least 165 mammal species are found in the Philippines
Biodiversity Hotspot and over 100 of these are endemic
(61 percent). one of the highest levels of mammal
endemism in any hotspot.
Largest and most impressive of the mammals in the PH
is the criticallt endangered Tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis), a dwarf water buffalo that lives only on
Mindoro Island.

Reptiles
Reptiles are represented by about 235 species, some 160
of which are endemic (68 percent). Six genera are
endemic, including the snake genus Myersophis, which
is represented by a single species, Myersophis alpestris,
on Luzon and Philippine flying lizards from the genus
Draco. The Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus
mindorensis) is considered the most threatened
crocodilian in the world.

Amphibians
There are nearly 90 amphibian species in the hotspot,
almost 85 percent of which are endemic. One interesting