answerS 9

Contents

Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
Unit 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1
1.1 Importance of Chemistry 4
1.2 Nature of Matter 4
1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement 6
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 10
1.5 Laws of Chemical Combinations 14
1.6 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 16
1.7 Atomic and Molecular Masses 16
1.8 Mole Concept and Molar Masses 18
1.9 Percentage Composition 18
1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations 20

Unit 2 Structure of Atom 29

2.1 Discovery of Sub-atomic Particles 30
2.2 Atomic Models 32
2.3 Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom 37
2.4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom 46
2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 49
2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 53

Unit 3 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 74

3.1 Why do we Need to Classify Elements ? 74
3.2 Genesis of Periodic Classification 75
3.3 Modern Periodic Law and the Present Form of the Periodic Table 78
3.4 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Numbers > 100 78
3.5 Electronic Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table 81

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3.6 Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: 82

s-, p-, d-, f- Blocks

3.7 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements 85

Unit 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 100

4.1 Kössel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding 101
4.2 Ionic or Electrovalent Bond 106
4.3 Bond Parameters 107
4.4 The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 112
4.5 Valence Bond Theory 117
4.6 Hybridisation 120
4.7 Molecular Orbital Theory 125
4.8 Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 129
4.9 Hydrogen Bonding 131

Unit 5 Thermodynamics 136

5.1 Thermodynamic Terms 137
5.2 Applications 140
5.3 Measurement of ∆U and ∆H: Calorimetry 145
5.4 Enthalpy Change, ∆rH of a Reaction – Reaction Enthalpy 146
5.5 Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions 152
5.6 Spontaneity 157
5.7 Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium 162

Unit 6 Equilibrium 168

6.1 Equilibrium in Physical Processes 169
6.2 Equilibrium in Chemical Processes – Dynamic Equilibrium 172
6.3 Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant 174
6.4 Homogeneous Equilibria 177
6.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria 179
6.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 181
6.7 Relationship between Equilibrium Constant K, 184
Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G

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6.8 Factors Affecting Equilibria 184

6.9 Ionic Equilibrium in Solution 188
6.10 Acids, Bases and Salts 189
6.11 Ionization of Acids and Bases 192
6.12 Buffer Solutions 202
6.13 Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts 204
Appendices 215
Answer to Some Selected Problems 229

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Contents

Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook v
Unit 7 Redox Reactions 235
7.1 Classical Idea of Redox Reactions-Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 235
7.2 Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions 237
7.3 Oxidation Number 239
7.4 Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes 249
Unit 8 Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques 256
8.1 General Introduction 256
8.2 Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds 257
8.3 Structural Representations of Organic Compounds 258
8.4 Classification of Organic Compounds 261
8.5 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 262
8.6 Isomerism 270
8.7 Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism 271
8.8 Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds 278
8.9 Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 284
8.10 Quantitative Analysis 285

Unit 9 Hydrocarbons 295

9.1 Classification 295
9.2 Alkanes 296
9.3 Alkenes 306
9.4 Alkynes 314
9.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbon 318
9.6 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity 325
Answers 328

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD iii
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS v
PREFACE ix
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER xii

C H A P T E R 1
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The international system of units 1
1.3 Significant figures 3
1.4 Dimensions of physical quantities 7
1.5 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 7
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its applications 7

C H A P T E R 2
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and speed 14
2.3 Acceleration 15
2.4 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 17

C H A P T E R 3
MOTION IN A PLANE
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Scalars and vectors 27
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 29
3.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors – graphical method 29
3.5 Resolution of vectors 31
3.6 Vector addition – analytical method 33
3.7 Motion in a plane 34
3.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 37
3.9 Projectile motion 38
3.10 Uniform circular motion 40

C H A P T E R 4
LAWS OF MOTION
4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Aristotle’s fallacy 50
4.3 The law of inertia 50
4.4 Newton’s first law of motion 51
4.5 Newton’s second law of motion 53
4.6 Newton’s third law of motion 56

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4.7 Conservation of momentum 57

4.8 Equilibrium of a particle 58
4.9 Common forces in mechanics 59
4.10 Circular motion 63
4.11 Solving problems in mechanics 64

C H A P T E R 5
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 73
5.3 Work 73
5.4 Kinetic energy 74
5.5 Work done by a variable force 75
5.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 76
5.7 The concept of potential energy 77
5.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 78
5.9 The potential energy of a spring 80
5.10 Power 83
5.11 Collisions 83

C H A P T E R 6
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
6.1 Introduction 92
6.2 Centre of mass 95
6.3 Motion of centre of mass 99
6.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 100
6.5 Vector product of two vectors 101
6.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 103
6.7 Torque and angular momentum 105
6.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 108
6.9 Moment of inertia 114
6.10 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 116
6.11 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 118
6.12 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 120

C H A P T E R 7
GRAVITATION
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Kepler’s laws 128
7.3 Universal law of gravitation 129
7.4 The gravitational constant 131
7.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 132
7.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 133

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7.7 Gravitational potential energy 134

7.8 Escape speed 135
7.9 Earth satellites 137
7.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 138

APPENDICES 144

ANSWERS 160

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Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Contens in the Textbooks v
Preface vii
A Note for the Teachers xiii

C hapter 8
Mechanical Properties of Solids
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Stress and strain 168
8.3 Hooke’s law 169
8.4 Stress-strain curve 169
8.5 Elastic moduli 170
8.6 Applications of elastic behaviour of materials 174

C hapter 9
Mechanical Properties of Fluids
9.1 Introduction 180
9.2 Pressure 180
9.3 Streamline flow 186
9.4 Bernoulli’s principle 187
9.5 Viscosity 190
9.6 Surface tension 192

C hapter 10
Thermal Properties of Matter
10.1 Introduction 202
10.2 Temperature and heat 202
10.3 Measurement of temperature 203
10.4 Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature 203
10.5 Thermal expansion 204
10.6 Specific heat capacity 208
10.7 Calorimetry 209
10.8 Change of state 210
10.9 Heat transfer 214
10.10 Newton’s law of cooling 219

C hapter 11
Thermodynamics
11.1 Introduction 226
11.2 Thermal equilibrium 227
11.3 Zeroth law of thermodynamics 228
11.4 Heat, internal energy and work 229
11.5 First law of thermodynamics 230
11.6 Specific heat capacity 231

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11.7 Thermodynamic state variables and equation of state 232

11.8 Thermodynamic processes 233
11.9 Second law of thermodynamics 236
11.10 Reversible and irreversible processes 236
11.11 Carnot engine 237

C hapter 12
Kinetic Theory
12.1 Introduction 244
12.2 Molecular nature of matter 244
12.3 Behaviour of gases 246
12.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas 248
12.5 Law of equipartition of energy 252
12.6 Specific heat capacity 253
12.7 Mean free path 254

C hapter 13
Oscillations
13.1 Introduction 259
13.2 Periodic and oscilatory motions 260
13.3 Simple harmonic motion 262
13.4 Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion 264
13.5 Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion 266
13.6 Force law for simple harmonic motion 267
13.7 Energy in simple harmonic motion 268
13.8 The Simple Pendulum 270

C hapter 14
Waves
14.1 Introduction 278
14.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves 280
14.3 Displacement relation in a progressive wave 281
14.4 The speed of a travelling wave 284
14.5 The principle of superposition of waves 287
14.6 Reflection of waves 288
14.7 Beats 293

answers 300

Bibliography 307

index 309

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 Contents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
1. Sets 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Sets and their Representations 1
1.3 The Empty Set 5
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets 6
1.5 Equal Sets 7
1.6 Subsets 9
1.7 Universal Set 12
1.8 Venn Diagrams 13
1.9 Operations on Sets 13
1.10 Complement of a Set 18

2. Relations and Functions 24

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Cartesian Product of Sets 24
2.3 Relations 28
2.4 Functions 30

3. Trigonometric Functions 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Angles 43
3.3 Trigonometric Functions 49
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles 57
4. Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 76
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Complex Numbers 76

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4.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number 81
4.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation 83
5. Linear Inequalities 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Inequalities 89
5.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable
and their Graphical Representation 91
6. Permutations and Combinations 100
6.1 Introduction 100
6.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting 100
6.3 Permutations 104
6.4 Combinations 114
7. Binomial Theorem 126
7.1 Introduction 126
7.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices 126
8. Sequences and Series 135
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 Sequences 135
8.3 Series 137
8.4 Geometric Progression (G.P.) 139
8.5 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M. 144
9. Straight Lines 151
9.1 Introduction 151
9.2 Slope of a Line 152
9.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line 159
9.4 Distance of a Point From a Line 164
10. Conic Sections 176
10.1 Introduction 176
10.2 Sections of a Cone 176
10.3 Circle 179
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10.5 Ellipse 187
10.6 Hyperbola 195

11. Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry 208

11.1 Introduction 208
11.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in
Three Dimensional Space 209
11.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space 209
11.4 Distance between Two Points 211
12. Limits and Derivatives 217
12.1 Introduction 217
12.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives 217
12.3 Limits 220
12.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions 234
12.5 Derivatives 239
13. Statistics 257
13.1 Introduction 257
13.2 Measures of Dispersion 259
13.3 Range 259
13.4 Mean Deviation 259
13.5 Variance and Standard Deviation 271
14. Probability 289
14.1 Event 289
14.2 Axiomatic Approach to Probability 295
Appendix 1: Infinite Series 314
A.1.1 Introduction 314
A.1.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index 314
A.1.3 Infinite Geometric Series 316
A.1.4 Exponential Series 318
A.1.5 Logarithmic Series 321

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Appendix 2: Mathematical Modelling 323
A.2.1 Introduction 323
A.2.2 Preliminaries 323
A.2.3 What is Mathematical Modelling 327
Answers 335
Supplementary Material 357

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