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Overview Motivation
Employee Engagement

• Four-Drive Theory • Characteristics of Effective

Drives & Goal Setting & Feedback
• Maslow’s Needs
Needs Feedback • Evaluating Goal Setting and
• Intrinsic & Extrinsic
• Learned Needs Theory Feedback

Expectancy • E-to-P Expectancy
• P-to-O Expectancy
Theory
• Outcome Valences
• Equity Theory
Organizational • Distributive justice
Justice • Procedural Justice
• Interactional Justice

• Job Design & Work Motivation

OB Mod. & Social • OB Modification Job Design -- Job Characteristics Model
Cognition Theory • Social Cognition Theory • Job Design Practices that
Motivate
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Motivation

Focus -- the choice of

what to do
Effort – the amount of physical, cognitive, and emotional
energy expended at a given moment to achieve an objective

Motivation
Internal forces that affect a
person’s voluntary choice of Staying power -- how long people sustain
behavior their effort as they move toward their goal

An individual’s emotional and cognitive motivation,

Employee particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive
Engagement effort toward work-related goals.

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Drives & Needs

Individual • An individual’s self-concept, social norms, and past experiences amplify or suppress
emotions, thereby resulting in stronger or weaker needs.
Differences • These individual differences also influence what goals and behaviors are motivated by
the felt emotions.

Drives & emotions Needs

Decisions &
Drives (primary needs):
• Hardwired characteristics of the brain that try
Needs:
Goal-directed forces
behavior
to keep us in balance by correcting that people
deficiencies. experience
• Drives are innate and universal; they are
starting point of motivation because they They are the motivational
generate emotions for us to act on our forces of emotions channels
environment toward particular goals to
• Cognition plays a role in motivation BUT correct deficiencies or
emotions are the REAL sources of energy in imbalances
human behavior

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 Drives & Needs Four-Drive Theory
This theory states that emotions are the source
of human motivation and that these emotions
Drive to Acquire
A are generated through four drives
• To seek out, take, control and retain objects
and personal experiences
• Produces several needs: achievement, Social norms, personal values
competence, status, and self-esteem
& past experiences
Drive to Bond
• To form social relationships and mutual caring
B
commitments with others
• Produces the need for belonging and affiliation Goal-directed choice and
Mental skill set channels effort
emotional forces created by
Drive to Comprehend
• To satisfy our curiosity
C drives
• Produces the need to make sense of our environment

Drive to Defend
• To protect ourselves physically, psychologically and
D
socially
• create a fight or flight response when facing threats
to one’s self-concept, values, well being of others, etc. 5
Drives & Needs
The Four-Drive Theory
1. All drives are hardwired in
our brains and exist in all
human beings.
2. The four drives are
independent of one another
3. There is no hierarchy to
drives
4. No fundamental drives are
excluded in the model
5. Three drives are proactive.
Only the drive to defend is
reactive, i.e., it is triggered by
threat
Four-Drive Theory
How the Four Drives
influence Motivation
and Behavior
1. Four drives determine which
emotions are automatically
tagged to incoming
information
2. Emotions generated by the
four drives motivate us to act
3. Our mental skill set
determines how we make
decision and act in ways that
are acceptable to society and
our own moral compass
Practical implications for
managers
1. Offer conditions in the
workplace to help employees
fulfill all four drives
2. Balance the fulfillment of the
four drives
3. Counterbalance the four drives:
(a) the drive to bond
counterbalances the drive
to acquire
(b) the drive to defend
counterbalances the drive
to comprehend/learn
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Drives & Needs Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy

Self-Actualization Needs Growth need

– ongoing need
Need to
(self-fulfilment, realization of one’s potential)
know
Esteem Needs Deficiency need

+
(self-esteem and social esteem/status)

Belongingness/love Needs Deficiency need

(interaction with and affection from others)

Need for
Safety Needs Deficiency need aesthetic
(security and stability)
beauty
Physiological Needs
Deficiency need
(food, air, water, shelter, etc.)

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Drives & Needs
The Theory
– A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before
directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level
needs.
– Lowest unmet need has the strongest
motivational effect
– Self-actualization -- a growth need that continues
to motivate even after it has been fulfilled
– Maslow generated a more holistic, humanistic,
positive perspective of motivation
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
Its weaknesses
– A lack of empirical support
– The needs hierarchy is not universal, i.e.,
each of us has a unique needs hierarchy
influenced by self-concept, personal values,
and personality
– People have different hierarchies of values
– The theory is widely known and incorrectly
assumed to be accurate – OB students need
to be aware of its true status
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Drives & Needs
Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic
Motivation
1. The Additive view:
Someone performing an
intrinsically motivated job
becomes even more motivated
by also receiving an extrinsic
source of motivation
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
• Motivation controlled by the individual and experienced from the
activity itself
• Anchored in the innate drives for competence and autonomy
• Motivation generated by receiving something that is beyond the
personal control for instrumental reasons
• For example, we direct our effort toward a reward controlled by
others that indirectly fulfils a need
2. The contrasting view: 3. Research evidence: MIXED
Extrinsic sources of motivation • Extrinsic motivators may reduce existing
will reduce intrinsic motivation intrinsic motivations to some extent under
certain conditions; impact is minimal
• Extrinsic rewards do not undermine intrinsic
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motivation when they are unexpected
Drives & Needs Learned Needs Theory

Need for Affiliation

• Seek approval from others
• Conform to others’ wishes and
expectations
• Avoid conflict and confrontation

nAff
Need for Power
Need for Achievement • Want to exercise control over others
• Highly involved in team decisions
• Choose moderately challenging tasks nAch nPow • Concerned about their leadership
• Want unambiguous feedback and position.
recognition for success • Personalized power – enjoy power for
• Prefer working alone its own sake
• Socialized power – desire power as a
means to help others

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Expectancy Theory

E-to-P P-to-O Outcomes

Expectancy Expectancy & Valences
Probability that a specific Probability that a specific Anticipated satisfaction
level of effort will lead to a performance level will lead from the outcome
specific performance level to specific outcomes
Outcome 1
+ or -

Outcome 2
Effort Performance + or -

Outcome 3
+ or -

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Expectancy Theory

Practical implications: Limitations:

E-to-P P-to-O Outcomes 1. Assumes people are

Expectancy
• Assure employees that they
have the required abilities,
resources, and clear role
perceptions to reach the
desired levels of
performance
• Match employee abilities to
job requirements
• Allow behavioral modeling
• Give supportive feedback
perfectly rational
Expectancy & Valences decision makers
2. Mainly explains
extrinsic motivation
• Measure performance • Individualize rewards 3. Ignores emotions as a
accurately • watch out for source of motivation
• Distribute valued counter-valent
4. Does not explain how
rewards based on outcomes
employees develop E-
performance
to-P and P-to-O
• Communicate the expectancies
connection between
performance and
outcome
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OB Modification A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

Antecedents (A) Behavior (B) Consequences (C)

What happens before behavior
• Antecedents are events preceding
the behaviour, informing
employees that a particular
action will produce specific
consequences
• Antecedents do not cause
behaviour
What a person What happens after behavior
says or does
Contingencies of reinforcement:
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Punishment
3. Extinction
4. Negative reinforcement

OB Mod tries to change behaviour (B) by managing antecedents (A) and

consequences (C)

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Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Much learning occurs by observing and modelling others as

Theory well as by anticipating the consequences of our behaviour.

Learning Behaviour Behaviour

Self-regulation
Consequences Modelling

Learning by observing or hearing
about what happened to other
people, not just by directly
experiencing the consequences
Learning by imitating and practicing
the behaviours of others
Learning by setting own objectives
and plan of action
Self-reinforcement – Reward and
punish oneself for exceeding or falling
short of self-set goals

OB Mod and social cognitive theory explain how people learn probabilities of successful performance (E-to-P
expectancies) as well as probabilities of various outcomes from that performance (P-to-O expectancies). 14
Goal Setting and Feedback

Goal • Goals motivate people by clarifying

A cognitive representation
of a desired end state that a
person is committed to
attain
role perceptions and the direction of
effort. Task
• Goals amplify the intensity &
Performance
persistence of effort because they
make it easier to judge how much
energy is required to reach them.

S M A R T E R
Specific Achievable Time-framed Reviewed

Measurable Relevant Exciting

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Goal Setting and Feedback
Strength-based
Coaching
Characteristics of Effective Feedback
1. Also known as appreciative
coaching
2. A positive approach to feedback
Specific that focuses on employees’
strengths rather than their
Relevant weaknesses
Credible 3. People are more receptive to
information about their
Effective strengths than their flaws
4. Problem-focused feedback may
Feedback lead to defensiveness and lower
self-efficacy, which can result in
lower performance
5. Personality becomes quite
Sufficiently Timely stable in the early stages of a
frequent person’s career

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Goal Setting and Feedback
Four major concerns:
1. Narrow focus
A tendency to focus on a narrow subset
of measurable performance while
ignoring aspects that are difficult to
measure
3. Easy-to-achieve goals
When goals are tied to financial
rewards, people tend to be
motivated by easy goals
2. Unethical actions
Very difficult goals may motivate some
people to engage in unethical behavior to
achieve those goals.
4. Learning in complex
jobs
Setting performance goals is effective in
established jobs but may interfere with the
learning process in new, complex jobs
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Organizational Justice
Distributive
Justice
The perception that appropriate
decision criteria have been
applied to calculate how various
benefits and burdens are
distributed.
Equality Principle
Everyone in the group should
receive the same outcomes
Procedural
Justice
The perception that
appropriate procedural rules
have been applied throughout
the decision process.
Need Principle
Those with the greatest need
should receive more outcomes
than those with less need
Interactional
Justice
The perception that
appropriate rules have been
applied in the way employees
are treated throughout the
decision process.
Equity Principle
Everyone be paid in proportion
to their contribution
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Organizational Justice Equity Theory

Own outcomes Other’s outcomes

• Pay/benefits • Promotions • Pay/benefits • Promotions

• Recognition • Workspace • Recognition • Workspace
• Learning • Interesting job • Learning • Interesting job
Compare own ratio
with other’s ratio
Own inputs Other’s inputs

• Skills • Reputation • Skills • Reputation

• Efforts • Hours • Efforts • Hours
• Performance • Experience • Performance • Experience
Perceptions of
equity or inequity

• Individuals determine fairness in terms of a comparison other.

• Research suggests that employees frequently collect information on several referents to form a
“generalized” comparison other. 19
Organizational Justice Equity Theory

Actions to correct
Example
inequity
Perceived Inequity tension Motivation to Change our inputs Less organizational citizenship
inequity (-ve emotions) reduce tension
Change our outcomes Ask for pay increase

Change other’s inputs Ask coworker to work harder

Ensure coworker gets less

Change other’s
desirable jobs/working
outcomes
conditions

Start thinking that other’s

Change our perceptions
perks aren’t really so valuable

Change comparison Compare self to someone

other closer to own situation
Leave the field Quit

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 Organizational Justice Equity Theory

Ways to improve procedural and interactional justice:

Unbiased decisions: Ethical principles: Voice: Right to appeal:

Decision makers The decision criteria Employees can Employees can
must be perceived as and decision present their appeal against a
unbiased, without procedures are evidence and decision
self-interest, and not compatible with opinions to decision
blinded by narrow ethical principles. makers
doctrines.

Fair treatment:
• Treat people with politeness and with respect
• Give employees thorough and well justified explanations
• Give honest, candid, and timely information about the decision
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Job Design

Job Design The process of assigning tasks to a job, including the

interdependency of those tasks with other jobs

Job A set of tasks performed by one person

Scientific
Job Specialization Management

A division of labor -- Work is subdivided into The practice of systematically partitioning work
separate jobs assigned to different people into its smallest elements and standardizing
• Fewer skills and less knowledge to learn tasks to achieve maximum efficiency
• More frequent practice
• Less attention residue from changing tasks
• Better person-job matching
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Job Design Job Characteristics Model

Job Characteristics The model identifies five core job dimensions that produce
Model three psychological states.

Core Job Critical

Characteristics Psychological Personal and work Outcomes
States

Skill variety
Task identity Felt meaningfulness of the work Intrinsic
motivation
Task significance
Felt responsible for work outcomes Work performance
Autonomy (quality and efficiency)

Knowledge of work results Satisfaction with the work itself

Job Feedback

Individual difference moderators

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Job Design Job Characteristics Model

Other job characteristics not included in the model:

1. Social characteristics of the job

 Task interdependence − social interaction with coworkers
 Feedback from others − from coworkers, clients, etc.

2. Information processing demands

 High task variability − job has non-routine work patterns
 High task analyzability − use known procedures/rules

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Job Design

Moving employees from one • Minimizes health risks

Job Rotation job to another • Supports multi-skilling
• Reduces boredom

Job Enlargement Adding more tasks to an • Increases skill variety

existing job • Improve efficiency & flexibility

Giving employees more • Higher job satisfaction & work

Job Enrichment responsibility for scheduling, motivation
coordinating, and planning • Higher productivity
their own work • Natural grouping
• Client relationships

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