Control System I

Chapter 6
The Frequency Response Design Method

“The calls tell us corporations have used inflation, the pandemic and
supply chain challenges as an excuse to exaggerate their own costs
and then nickel and dime consumers.”
By Isabella Simonetti, Julie Creswell for New York Times

企業面對苦苦掙扎的家庭，沒必要把價格漲到這麼高。這些會告訴我們，
企業以通膨、疫情及供應鏈挑戰為藉口，誇大自身成本，然後一點一滴榨
乾消費者。」 譯／陳韋廷

Chap 6, No. 1
Control System I
Introduction
A Perspective on the Frequency response design method
The design of feedback control systems in industry is probably
accomplished using frequency-response methods more often than any
other method.
The primary reason for the popularity of frequency-response design is that
it provides good designs in the face of uncertainty in the plant model. For
example, systems with poorly known or changing high-frequency
resonances, we can temper the feedback compensation to alleviate the
effects of those uncertainties
Another advantage of using frequency response is the ease with which
experimental information can be used for design purpose.
Row measurements of the output amplitude and phase of a plant
undergoing a sinusoidal input excitation are sufficient to design a suitable
feedback control. No intermediate processing of the data (such as finding
poles and zeros or determining system matrices) is required to arrive at
the system model.

Chap 6, No. 2
Control System I
Introduction
The wide availability of computer software renders the advantage less
important now than it was years ago. However, for relatively simple
system, frequency response is often still the most cost-effective
design method.
Furthermore, specifications for control system are typically provided in
terms of by a system’s frequency response characteristics. Therefore,
design in the frequency domain directly ensures that the specifications
are met, rather than having to transform from other parameters.
A disadvantage of the method is that the underlying theory is rather
complicated and requires a rather broad knowledge of complex variables.
However, the methodology of design is easy, and the insights gained by
learning the theory are well worth the struggle.

Chap 6, No. 3
Control System I
Introduction of Frequency Response (From Chap 3)
Consider a linear system as shown below
Apply a sinusoidal U Y The response of the
A Linear
input source; system is also sinusoidal;
System
In steady state
U  U m cos ( t   ) Y  Ym cos ( t     )
The characteristics of the steady-state response are:
1) The magnitude between input and output may be different
2) The frequency is the same
3) The phase may be changed
Step to analyze a linear system:
1) Transform the deferential equation to frequency domain
2) Solve the problem using techniques such as linear algebra
3) Transform the resulting frequency domain to the time domain

Chap 6, No. 4
Control System I 6.1 Frequency Response

Consider a system described by Y  s   G  s  ,

U s
Let u  t   A sin  0t  1 t 
A0 A0
U s  2 ,  Y s  G s 2
s  0 2
s  02
Let G( s ) 
s m  b1s m 1  ...  bm 1s  bm
, mn  0 
  0 s   0


  0 0
 s  p1  s  p2 ...  s  pn s 2  02
 j
s 2  02
and pi  p j for i  j ( pi  s are distinct )
1 2 n  00
Then Y  s     ...   
s  p1 s  p2 s  pn s  j0 s  j0
 0 and  0 are complex conjagate.
y ( t )  1e p1t   2e p2t  ...   ne pnt  2  0 cos  0t    , t  0
Im  0 
where   tan -1
,
Re  0 
If all the poles ( pi  0, i  1, ... ,n ) are on the LHP, the system is stable,
then the steady-state response will be due solely to the sinusoidal terms.
Chap 6, No. 5
Control System I
Example 3.7 Frequency Response of an RC Circuit
y  ky  u  t   sin  10t  1 t 
k=1
L u  t   L sin  10t   2
10
s  100
1 10
Y  s   G  s U  s   ,
s  1 s  100
2

The time response of the output:

t
10   1
y t   e  sin  10t     y 1  t   y 2  t 
101 101
where   tan 1  10   84.29
y 1  t  : transient response
In steady-state, y  t   y 2  t   AM cos  0t   

Re G( j0 )  Im G( j0 )

2 2
M  G( j0 ) 
Im G( j0 ) 
 ( 0 )  tan 1  G( j0 )
Re G( j0 ) 

G  j0   Me j  M  Chap 6, No. 6

Control System IExample 6.1 Frequency-Response Characteristic of Capacitor
Consider the capacitor shown i  t   C dv ,
dt
The transfer function
I s
I  s   CsV  s  ,  G  s    Cs,  G  j    Cj  i +
V s C v(t)
-
The magnitude and the phase
M  G  j   jC  C , and   G  j   jC  90 .

V I
Capacitor

The current leads the voltage or voltage lags

current by 90 for a pure capacitor.

Chap 6, No. 7
Control System I Example 6.2 Frequency-Response Characteristic of a Lead
Consider the lead compensator
Ts  1 jT  1 1   T 
2
Dc  s   K ,    1. Dc  j   K . M  Dc  j   K ,
Ts  1 jT  1 1  T 
2

Solution: Let   0.1. Dc  j     1  jT     1  jT 

The magnitude and phase  tan 1  T   tan 1 T  .
 i   1 T , 1  jT  1, 1  jT  1,  M( j )  K
Dc  j     1    1  0  0  0 K = 1, T = 1
 ii   1 T , jT  1  jT ; 1  jT  jT
 M(  )  K   10 K ,
Dc  j     jT     jT   90  90  0

 iii    1 T , M( j )   T 2  1  2  1.414,
  1  jT   45

 iv    1 T , M( j )  T 2  1  2  1.414
  1  jT   45 

1 1
X
 1 T - 1/T 0 Chap 6, No. 8
 Response of Second-order System vs. 
Control System I

n2
G s  2
s  2 n s   n2
1
 ,
s 2
n2   2 n  s n   1
The unit-step response:
y  t   1  e  t  A1cosd t  A2 sin d t 

Figure 3.19 (b)

Chap 6, No. 9
Control System I
Frequency Response of a Second-Order System

The damping of the system can be determined from the transient-

response overshoot or from the peak in the magnitude of the frequency
response as shown in last page.
From the frequency response,  n is approximately equal to the bandwidth
– the frequency where the magnitude starts to fall off from its low-
frequency value.
Therefore, the rise time, t r  1.8 n , can be estimated from the bandwidth.
The magnitude of peak overshoot is approximately 1  2  for  < 0.5, so
the M p can be estimated from the peak overshoot from the frequency
response.
The time transient-response  The frequency response

Chap 6, No. 10
Control System I
The Bandwidth (1/2)
Bandwidth: the maximum frequency at which the output of a system will
track an input sinusoid in a satisfactory manner.
The bandwidth is the frequency of input r at which the output y is attenuated
to a factor of 0.707 times the input (or down 3 db) relative to the zero-
frequency gain (DC gain).
R + Y
KG(s)
-

Y s KG  s 
s  ,
R s 1  KG  s 

The bandwidth will equal to the natural frequency of the closed-loop roots
(BW  n for a closed-loop damping ratio   0.707 ).
(1) The output follows the input at the lower excitation frequencies;
(2) The output ceases to follow the input at higher frequencies.
Chap 6, No. 11
Control System I
The Bandwidth (2/2)

 Bandwidth is the measure of speed response in the frequency domain

Rise time and peak time measure in the time domain
Dominant-roots natural frequency in the s-plane measure
G( j)
BW  t r , t p  dominant-roots
A

Frequency Time domain s-domain 

domain y e  nt BW
BW  n t  1  0 . 416  2 .917 2

r
n
For   0.707 , the bandwidth is G( j)
approximately equal to the natural frequency Bandwidth is
of the closed-loop roots, with an error infinite

typically less than a factor of 2.
If the ideal model of the system does not have a
high-frequency roll-off (e.g. poles = zeros), the
bandwidth is infinite; however, this does not occur
in nature, as nothing responds well at infinite
frequencies. Chap 6, No. 12
Control System I
6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique
The Bode plot is still important to develop good intuition so you can
quickly identify the erroneous computer results. You need the ability to
perform a sanity check and in some case to determine approximate result
by hand.
The idea in Bode’s method is to plot magnitude curves using the
logarithmic scale and phase curves using a linear scale.
This allow us to plot a high-order G  j  by simply adding the separate
terms graphically.
The complex expression with zero and pole factors can be written in polar
(or phase) form as,
(s  z1)(s  z2 ) Im(s)
G (s ) 
(s  p1)(s  p2 )(s  p3 )
s1s2 r1e j1r2e j2
G  j   
s3 s4 s5 r3e j3 r4e j 4 r5e j5
r2 r5 r3 r1 r4 4
 r r  j     
  1 2 e  1 2 3 4 5 . Re(s)
 r3r4 r5 
rr  z2 P3 P1  z1 P2
G  j   1 2 ,
r3r4 r5
 log10 G  j   log10 r1  log10 r2  log10 r3  log10 r4  log10 r5
Chap 6, No. 13
Control System I
6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique
The frequency of Bode plot is typical presented as:
 
log10 G  j    log10 Me j  log10 M  j log10 e
log10 G  j 
The power in db (decibel or 1/10 of a bel
(分貝). Bel is named for Alexander A
Graham Bell, a founder of Bell Lab.
P
G  j  db  10 log10 2 , log10 
P1 BW
P1 and P2 are the input and output power
G  j 
Also P  V 2 R , the “power db”
P2 V22 V2 log10 
G  j  db  10 log10  10 log10 2  20 log10
P1 V1 V1

We can present a Bode plot as the magnitude in decibels versus log 

and the phase in degree versus log . Will skip the base “10” thereafter.
In a Bode plot if the magnitude data are given in decibels the vertical
scale is linear such that each decade of G  j  represents 20 db.

Chap 6, No. 14
Control System I
6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique
Advantage of working with frequency response in term of Bode plots.
1. Dynamic compensator design can be based entirely on Bode plots.
2. Bode plots can be determined experimentally.
3. Bode plots of systems in series (or tandem) simply add, which is
quite convenient.
4. The use of a log scale permits a much wide ranges of frequencies
to be displayed on a single plot than is possible with linear scales.
The reasons of understanding the Bode plots for the control engineer:
1. Allow the engineer not only to deal with simple problem, but also to
perform a sanity check on computer results for more complicated
cases.
2. Often approximation can be used to quickly sketch the frequency
response and deduce stability, as well as to determine the form of
the needed dynamic compensations.
3. An understanding of plotting method is useful in interpreting
frequency-response data that having generated experimentally.
Chap 6, No. 15
Control System I 6.1.1 Bode Plot Technique
Write the transfer function of the Bode form.
n  j  1  1 j 2  1 (s  z1)(s  z2 )...
KG  j   K 0  j  . where KG (s )  K n
 j a  1 j b  1 s (s  p1)(s  p2 )...
K 0 :the DC gain of the system.
A simple example:
j 1  1
KG  j   K 0 .
j  j a  1
2

then KG  j   K 0    j 1  1   j 2    j a  1

log KG  j   log K 0  log j 1  1  log  j 2   log j a  1 (*)
In decibels, (*) becomes
log KG  j  db  20 log K 0  20 log j 1  1  20 log  j 2   20 log j a  1


1. K 0  j  
n

All the transfer

 j  1
1
functions of this 2.
kind: classification 1
  j  2
j 
3.     2  1 .
  n  n 
Chap 6, No. 16
Control System I
Case 1: Singularity at the Origin
1. K 0  j  
n

log K 0  j   log K 0  n log j

n

 i  n  1,  Ko  1 , Ko  j    Ko  n  j    0  n 90
n
   90
M(  )   j    , j  90
1 1 1
 ii  n  -1, M(  )   ,   0  90  90 .
( j )  j

M(  ) slope  1,
slope  1, db
20 db decade db M(  ) 20 db decade
10 10 20
20
1 0 1 0
0.1 -20 0.1 -20
0.1 1 10 0.1 1 10
     

90
45 45
 90 Chap 6, No. 17
Control System I Case 1: Singularity at the Origin

(iii) n  2, M(  )  ( j  )2   2 , ( j  ) 2  2( j  )  180

1 1 1
(iv) n  2, M(  )   ,   180
( j ) 2
 2
( j ) 2

slope  2, slope  2,

M(  )
40 db decade M(  ) 40 db decade

100 40 100 40
10 20 10 20
1 0 1 0
0.1 -20 0.1 -20
0.1 1 10  0.01 0.1 1

     
180 
90 90
 180

Chap 6, No. 18
Control System I
Class 1: Singularity at the Origin - Summary
1. K 0  j  
n

log K 0  j   log K 0  n log j

n

The magnitude plot of this term is a straight line with a slope

n x 20 db/decade.

K 0  j  is the only one class of term that

n
20 dB
decade
affects the slope of low frequencies,
because all other terms are constant in
that region.
The easiest way to draw the curve is to
locate  = 1 then plot log Ko at that
frequency.
The phase of  j  is   n  90 ; it is
n

independent of frequency and thus

horizontal line.

Chap 6, No. 19
Control System I Class 2: First-Order Term log10 G  j 

 j  1
1
2.
 i   j  1 Magnitude and Phase curves
a  1  , j  1  1, or M(  )  j  1  1, 
   G  j 
  j  1  1  0 ,  j  1  tan 1  tan 1 0  0 
 1 
 b   1  , j  1  j or M(  )  j  1   ,
  
  j  1  j  90 ,  j  1  tan 1  tan 1   90  
 1 
c    1  , M(  )   2 2  1  2  1.414 or 3db , 20 log  2   3 db

  j  1  tan 1  tan 1  1  45 . (The breakpoint)
1
The magnitude of this term approaches one asymptotes at very low
frequencies and another asymptote at very high frequencies.
Define the break point,   1  , below the break point, j  1  1 while
above the break point, j  1   .
Both the composite phase and magnitude curves are unaffected by this class of
term at frequencies a factor of 10 or so below the breakpoint because it’s
magnitude is 0 db and phase is 𝟎° .
Chap 6, No. 20
Control System I
Class 2: First-Order Term
1
 ii   j  1
1

j  1 log10 G  j 
Magnitude and Phase curves
a  1 ,  j  1  1, or 1 j  1  1,
  
 1  j  1  1  0 ,   1 j  1   tan 1  tan 1 0  0 
 1  
 b   1  , 1 j  1   1 j  or 1 j  1  , G  j 

 1  j  1    1 j   90 , 1  j  0  90  90 
c    1  , 1  2 2  1  1 2  0.707 or -3db ,

 
20 log 1 2  3 db (The breakpoint) 

 1  j  1  0  tan 1   tan 1  1  45 .
1
The effect of this term to the frequency response of magnitude and
phase is similar to the term of n = 1, shown in last page.

Chap 6, No. 21
Control System I Class 2: First-Order Term - Example
Slope = 20db/decade
G (s )  10s  1, G ( j )  j 10  1,
  10
The breakpoint
  1   1 10  0.1
For   1,   1  j 
curve is target to an asymptote
going from 0 at   0.02 to 90
at   0.5 .
The actual curve deviate from
asymptote by 11 at their
intersection. That is,
    1  0 .2 
tan 1    tan    11.3 ,
 1   1 
   1  5  almost 𝟗𝟎° after
tan 1    tan    78.7 .
 1   1 this frequency

almost no effect
before this frequency breakpoint Chap 6, No. 22
Control System I
1
Class 3: Second-Order Term
  j 
2
j 
3.     2  1 , 0    1
  n  n 
2
 j  j
 i  G        2  1,  n  1
 n  n
2
 j  j
 a   n ,  G        2  1  1  0 db  , G ( j )  0
 n  n
2
 j  2
b  n ,  G       2    when     ,
 n  n
 2 
G    db  20 log  2   40 log     40 log   n  , slope  40 db / decade
 n 
  2 
G      2  , G        2      n2   180  0  180 ,
 n 
 c    n ,  G     j 2 , G     j 2  2 , G( j )  90
if   0.5, G  jn  db  0
(independent of  )
  0.5, G  jn  db  0
  0.5, G  jn   0 Chap 6, No. 23
db
 Control System I
Class 3: Second-Order Term
1
 ii  G    2
,  n  1
 j  j
   2 1
 n  n

a   n ,  G     1  0 db  , G ( j )  0
 j n   n2
2

b  n ,  G       2  0  when     ,
   
  n2 
G    db  20 log  2   40 log   n   40 log    , slope  40 db / decade
 
  2 
G     1  2  , G        n2      2   0  180  180 ,
 n 

 c    n ,  G     1  j 2  , G     1 j 2  1 2 ,  G ( j  )   90

if   0.5, G  j n  0 (independent of  )
db
  0.5, G  j n  0
db
  0.5, G  j n  0
db
Chap 6, No. 24