What is the Byzantine Empire?

The name Byzantine comes from the ancient city of Byzantium; renamed Constantinople; and today known as Istanbul.

• It is difficult to tell the difference between the late Empire in Rome (Late Antiquity) and the Byzantine Empire
centered around Constantinople; the Byzantines were the Roman Empire, not simply the eastern branch of a
divided empire. The capital city, Constantinople, had been founded as the new capital of the Roman Empire
by Constantine (the first Christian emperor) in 330. Until the Ottoman Turks put an end to the Byzantine
world, when they conquered Constantinople in 1453, The Greek-speaking Byzantines referred to themselves
as Romans.

• “The gradual separation in government, religion, and culture between the East and West began in 410 with
the seizure of the city of Rome by the Goths. Ironically, the foreign conquerors of Rome claimed to be
continuing the empire, such was the power of the concept of the Roman Empire.”

• “Over the centuries, however, East and West developed very differently. The eastern Empire had always had
a predominately Greek character, but the Byzantines through the course of the first millennium became
increasingly isolated from the Latin West as it had to deal with military threats from Asia and Islam.”
Eventually, Greek became the official language of the Byzantines, as Latin became the language of the West.
As the two halves of the Roman Empire became increasingly isolated from each other, two Christian faiths
developed—the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Church in the East.”

• “The first golden age of the empire, the Early Byzantine period, extended from the founding of the new capital
into the 700s. Christianity replaced the gods of antiquity as the official religion of the culturally and religiously
diverse state in the late 300s. Byzantium's educated elite used Roman law and Greek and Roman culture to
maintain a highly organized government centered on its great cities. The artistic traditions of the wealthy state
extended throughout the empire, including the southernmost province of Egypt.”
•
(information in quotation marks is excerpted from
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm, accessed March 5, 2012, with additions from Kubiski not in quotes).
 Invasions of the 4th & 5th centuries

Invasion of Germanic tribes and Huns ca. 500 began to divided the Roman Empire, which was able to
maintain in the East, while the West became separated into a variety of Germanic Kingdoms.
Byzantine Empire before Iconoclasm ca. 700
 Christian Churches - Building Plans

San Vitale
CENTRAL PLAN
Old Saint Peter’s
BASILICAN PLAN
 San Vitale, Ravenna (begun in 525)
• Construction of San Vitale was begun in 525
as a Catholic Church, when Ravenna was
under control of Theodoric, ruler of the Goths
and a member of the Arian Christian Church,
classified as heretical by the Pope.

• The church is built on the site of the

martyrdom of St. Vitalis.

• The Byzantines captured Ravenna in 540 and

the church was completed in 548. It was
consecrated by Maximian, the first Archbishop
of Ravenna, who appears in the apse in a
mosaic portrait, presenting a model of the
church to Christ.

• San Vitale is a central plan with an octagonal

profile. A two-storied ambulatory surrounds a
central core which hold a small clerestory and
is topped with a dome.

• A narthex or entrance porch is attached at an

odd angle.

• A small choir and apse are added to the east

end of the octagon to form a small nave.

• The exterior is constructed from brick; the REQUIRED LECTURE: http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/

interior was completely covered with stone byzantine-justinian.html
panels, paintings, and mosaics.
 *San Vitale - floor plan & model*

• Central Plan – octagon exterior – clerestory supported by a pier and column arrangement of connected
semi-circles.
• Elongated apse connects with the center to form a small “nave”.
San Vitale - view into apse
Christ in the half dome over the apse is sitting
on a globe representing the universe. From
this orb flow the 4 rivers of paradise. So,
Christ is identified as ruling over heaven and
earth. He holds a scroll with 7 seals. This is a
reference to the 7 seals described in the Book
of Revelation. According to this text, when
Christ breaks each seal, horrors befall the
earth leading to its eventual destruction. This
precedes the final judgment of all who have
ever lived to determine who will spend eternity
in heaven and who will suffer indefinitely in
hell (there is no reincarnation in Christian
belief). Next to Christ are 2 angels, San Vitale
(the church’s namesake), and the founding
bishop, who offers a model of the church to
Christ. In the center of the vault Christ is
represented as a lamb.
*Christ in Heaven* seated on a globe of the universe with angels, St. Vitale, and a
bishop offering a model of the church to Christ
Christ is represented in different ways in San Vitale -
as the youthful, bearded Christ, as older and bearded,
and symbolized as a lamb with a halo.
*San Vitale - Emperor Justinian & Court (members of the military, administration, & church)*
He carries a paten, which would have held bread for communion.
 *Empress Theodora and Court*
Theodora carries a chalice which would have held wine for communion.
 Portraits

Even in the mosaic medium, which tends to stylized facial features, portraits are still used to establish identity and status.
Theodora and her attendants are dressed in rich textiles and jewelry made with precious gems and gold. Note that both
Theodora and Justinian are the only two with halos, which emphasizes their high status and suggests they have been
chosen by God to rule. Halos were used in Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Jewish art before adopted by Christians.
 Roman mosaic vs. Byzantine mosaic

Realism in the mosaic medium is created using the same techniques as those in painting —perspective,
foreshortening, and changes in color value (shading/modeling); however, because tile and glass are single,
solid colors, the subtle gradations in color value that can be achieved by blending paint, can only be imitated in
mosaic with very small tesserae (cf. Battle of Issus).
San Vitale (basket capital) Pantheon (Corinthian capital)
Note: Both use the acanthus scroll as the main decorative motif.
 Labyrinth at San Vitale
Walking the labyrinth symbolized arrival at a sacred
place - physically and spiritually
 Catholic and Orthodox Saints
• A SAINT is one who has been recognized for having an exceptional degree of holiness, sanctity, and virtue. While the English
term saint originated in Christianity, the term is now used by historians of religion "in a more general way to refer to the state
of special holiness that many religions attribute to certain people” (Gale Encyclopedia of Religion, 8033), with the Jewish Tzadik, the
Islamic wali, the Hindu rishi or guru, and the Buddhist arhat or bodhisattva also referred to as saints. Depending on the
religion, saints are recognized either through official church recognition or by popular acclaim.
• The Catholic Church teaches that it does not make or create saints, but rather, recognizes them. In the Church, the title of
Saint refers to a person who has been formally canonized (officially recognized) by the Catholic Church, and is therefore
believed to be in Heaven. In Church tradition, a person who is seen as exceptionally holy can be declared a saint by a formal
process, called canonization. Formal canonization is a lengthy process often taking many years, even centuries. The first step
in this process is an investigation of the candidate's life, undertaken by an expert. If the ‘application’ is approved, the person
may be granted the title of Venerable. Further investigations may lead to the candidate's beatification and given title of
Blessed. At a minimum, two important miracles are required to be formally declared a saint. These miracles must be
posthumous [after the person has died]. Finally, when all of this is done the Pope canonizes the saint.
• The veneration of saints, in Latin, cultus, or the cult of the saints, describes a particular popular devotion or abandonment to
a particular saint or saints. Although the term worship is sometimes used, it is intended in the old-sense meaning to honor or
give respect. According to the Catholic Church, Divine Worship is properly reserved only for God and never to the saints. They
can be asked to intercede or pray for those still on earth, just as one can ask someone on earth to pray for them. A saint may
be designated as a patron saint of a particular cause or profession, or invoked against specific illnesses or disasters. SAINTS
are not thought to have power of their own, but only that granted by God.
• Once a person has been declared a saint, the body of the saint is considered holy. The remains of saints are called holy relics
and are usually used in churches. Saints' personal belongings may also be used as relics. Some of the saints have a symbol
that represents their life. Relics of saints are respected in a similar manner to holy images and icons. The practices in
venerating relics of saints for healing is taken from the early Church.
• In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the title Ὅσιος, Hosios (f. Ὁσία Hosia) is also used. This is a title attributed to saints who had
lived a monastic or eremitic (hermit) life. Orthodox belief considers that God reveals his saints through answered prayers and
other miracles. It is believed that one of the ways the holiness (sanctity) of a person is revealed, is through the condition of
their RELICS. In some Orthodox countries (such as Greece, but not in Russia) graves are often reused after 3 to 5 years because
of limited space. Bones are washed and placed in an ossuary, often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally
when a body is exhumed something miraculous is reported as having occurred; exhumed bones are claimed to have given off a
fragrance, like flowers, or a body is reported as having remained free of decay, despite having been buried for some years in
the earth. As a general rule only clergy will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession, however, in
veneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint.
Excerpted from Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint (ast modified on 31 May 2013).
 Icon of the Virgin & Child
“Virgin of Vladimir” Russian,
12th century

• Icon = Byzantine picture of Christ, Virgin,

or Saint, or narrative religious scene like
crucifixion.

• Believed to hold the essence of the holy

person. Essence in the Byzantine, Greek-
speaking world, was understood as a concept
first developed by Plato (ca. 430 BCE), and
redefined by neoplatonic thinkers, especially
Plotinus (230 CE). In Plotius’s world view, which
combined mystical neoplatonic teachings,
similar esoteric ideas in Judaism and
Christianity, ESSENCE was a substance
emanating from the transcendent One – the
creator or all and to whom all things return.

• Within a Christian context, contemplation of

icons allowed a viewer direct, and
personal communication with the sacred
figure(s) represented.

• Prayers and petitions could result in

miracles of healing and good fortune.
Votive candles, photos, medals, slips of
paper are placed before the icon as
“surrogate” prayers. Ritual acts are
performed in front of icons. The icons
have been “seen” crying, bleeding, and in
the case of the Virgin, expressing milk.
 Icon of the Virgin & Child
“Virgin of Vladimir” Russian, 12th century

• ICON = Byzantine picture of Christ,

Virgin, or Saint, or narrative religious
scene like crucifixion.

• Believed to hold the ESSENCE of the

holy person.

• Contemplation of icons allowed viewer

direct communication with the sacred
figure(s) represented.

• Prayers and petitions could result in

miracles of healing and good fortune.
Votive candles, photos, medals, slips of
paper are placed before the icon as
“surrogate” prayers. Ritual acts are
performed in front of icons. The icons
have been “seen” crying, bleeding, and
in the case of the Virgin, expressing
milk.
Byzantine Icon in the Cathedral of Pisa, Italy with votive candles lit as an act of worship
 Icon is a Portrait

• Since an icon reflects the

“essence” of the holy person, it
is considered a portrait. It does
not necessarily have to be life-
like, but it must be
recognizable—so it always
must be depicted in the same
way.
• The virgin’s portrait also has an
origin story. The Gospel writer
Saint Luke was believed to be
an artist and painted the
virgin’s portrait from life. So it
is believed to be a true portrait
by the faithful.
Icons - 12th and 21st century
 Iconoclastic Controversy 726-843
• Aniconism = Anti Image Position
• Aniconic = adjective

• Maintains religious imagery conflicts with 1st

commandment.
First Commandment in the Abrahamic Tradition:
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven
image, or any likeness of any thing that is in
heaven above or that is in the earth beneath,
or that is in the water under the earth. Thou
shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor
serve them: for I the Lord they God am a
jealous God.

• Iconoclasm = time of disagreement in

Byzantium when a religious faction wanted
all icons destroyed.

• Also a political battle between priests and

monks.

• Iconophile – supported icons.

• Iconodules or Iconoclasts – opposed icons.

• A similar period of iconoclasm did not

happen in the Latin West.
ICONOCLASM is the deliberate destruction of imagery or symbols with religious or political
motives. It is a frequent component of major political or religious change. Above, a statue of
Saddam Hussein is toppled by the members of the United States military and Iraqi citizens
after Baghdad was captured by by U.S. forces in 2003.
 Icon Review
• In the artistic tradition of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, an icon is a representation of a sacred event or person that
facilitates direct communication with the divine.
• The authority of an icon representing Christ, the Virgin, or a saint derives from its proximity to its prototype. In
other words, the icon is powerful to the extent that it follows a pattern believed to originate with the living person.
According to legend, for instance, Veronica (whose name comes from the Latin vera icon, or “true image”) offered
Jesus her veil to dry his face as he struggled on the road to Calvary. When he wiped his face on the cloth, Jesus
miraculously left behind the imprint of his features. The most common icon of Christ is said to be modeled on this
image “not made by human hands.” In the case of the Virgin Mary, or the Virgin and Child, most icons trace their
descent from images supposedly painted from life by St. Luke.
• Sent to the Russian ruler by the Byzantine emperor between 1131 and 1136, the image later known as the Virgin of
Vladimir was believed to have been one of St. Luke’s original paintings. Now considered the work of a twelfth
century Byzantine artist, the icon came to be considered the most important and most powerful icon in Russia and
its composition was repeated countless times over subsequent generations. The icon seen here is a copy dating to
the seventeenth century. The authority attributed to the Virgin of Vladimir came not only from its ostensible
provenance, but also through its association with a number of miracles. On more than one occasion, the icon was
credited with protecting Russia in battles against formidable enemies. Because of this, the Virgin of Vladimir was
held close by rulers of Russia. Whenever the capital moved, the icon did as well, eventually ending up in Moscow in
the late fifteenth century.
• The Virgin of Vladimir and copies, such as this one, belong to a type of icon referred to in Greek as the Elousa, that
depicts the Virgin and Christ in a tender embrace. The Virgin, as seen in the example here, gestures to the child while
looking out to the viewer, as if to acknowledge Christ’s imminent sacrifice on behalf of humankind. Paradoxically, the
heavy use of gold leaf in this and other icons stresses both the otherworldly nature of this conduit to the spiritual
realm and the rich materiality of the object, which honors the figures depicted in very worldly terms. While the
original Virgin of Vladimir would have been on public display within the state cathedral, an icon such as this one
likely had a private owner. The small size of most icons made them extremely portable, and allowed physical
closeness with the object (hence with its subject), which the faithful might touch, hold, or even kiss.
http://www.learner.org/courses/globalart/work/219/index.html (Accessed 1 April, 2013),
Iconoclasm Review
(text by Text by Dr. Davor Džalto excepted from SmART History http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/iconoclasm.html
accessed 1 April 2013)

• The word “icon” refers to many different things today. For example, we use this word to refer to the small graphic symbols in
our software and to powerful cultural figures.

• Nevertheless, these different meanings retain a connection to the word's original meaning. “Icon” is Greek for “image” or
“painting” and during the medieval era, this meant a religious image on a wooden panel used for prayer and devotion. More
specifically, icons came to typify the art of the Orthodox Christian Church.

• “Iconoclasm” refers to the destruction of images or hostility toward visual representations in general. In a more specifically,
the word is used for the Iconoclastic Controversy that shook the Byzantine Empire for more than 100 years.

• Open hostility toward religious representations began in 726 when Emperor Leo III publicly took a position against icons; this
resulted in their removal from churches and their destruction. There had been many previous theological disputes over visual
representations, their theological foundations and legitimacy. However, none of these caused the tremendous social, political
and cultural upheaval of the Iconoclastic Controversy.

• Some historians believe that by prohibiting icons, the Emperor sought to integrate Muslim and Jewish populations. Both
Muslims and Jews perceived Christian images (that existed from the earliest times of Christianity) as idols and in direct
opposition to the Old Testament prohibition of visual representations. The first commandment states, “You shall have no other
gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a carved image – any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in the
earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth. You shall not adore them, nor serve them (Exodus 20:3-5).

• Another theory suggests that the prohibition was an attempt to restrain the growing wealth and power of the monasteries.
They produced the icons and were a primary target of the violence of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Other scholars offer a less
political motive, suggesting that the prohibition was primarily religious, an attempt to correct the wayward practice of
worshiping images…What we do know is that the prohibition essentially caused a civil war which shook the political, social and
religious spheres of the empire. The conflict pitted the emperor and certain high church officials (patriarchs, bishops) who
supported iconoclasm, against other bishops, lower clergy, laity and monks, who defended the icons.

• The original theological basis for iconoclasm was fairly weak. Arguments relied mostly on the Old Testament prohibition
(quoted above). But it was clear that this prohibition was not absolute since God also instructs how to make three dimensional
representations of the Cherubim (heavenly spirits or angels) for the Ark of the Covenant, which is also quoted in the Old
Testament, just a couple of chapters after the passage that prohibits images (Exodus 25:18-20).