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Measuring Instruments
Measuring instrument is a device which is used for measuring the
unknown quantity.
CHAPTER-2 The technology of using instruments to measure and control
physical and chemical properties of materials is called
instrumentation.
Measuring instruments can be classified as:
Instrument types and performance ✍ Absolute and secondary instruments
✍Analog and digital instruments
characteristics ✍Manual and automatic instruments
✍Self operated and power operated instruments
✍Null and deflection type instruments
✍Contact and non-contact type instruments
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Absolute and secondary instruments Conti..

Absolute instruments- The measuring instruments which give the The can be classified as indicating, integrating and recording

magnitude of the measuring quantity in terms of some physical instruments.

constants are said to be Absolute Measuring Instruments. Eg. Ammeter, voltmeter etc.

Indicating Instrument–The indicating instruments indicates the

Secondary The measuring instruments which are calibrated with magnitude of the measured quantity. This instrument uses the dial

absolute measuring instruments or another measuring instruments and pointer as an indicator.

that have already been calibrated with absolute measuring Recording Instrument – Such type of instruments gives a continuous

instruments are said to be Secondary Measuring Instruments. reading over a specified period. The variations in quantities are
recorded on the sheet of papers.
We can measure directly the value of the unknown quantity.
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Cont.. Cont..
Integrating Instruments – The instrument which measures
the summation of the quantity over a given period is known as
the integrating instruments.
Analog and digital instruments Digital instruments- provide a digital output(the output is discrete)
Definition: The analogue instrument is defined as the instrument Eg. Digital ammeter, digital voltmeter etc.
whose output is the continuous function of time, and they have a
constant relation to the input. The physicals quantity like voltage,
current, power and energy are measured through the analogue
instruments. Most of the analogue instrument use pointer or dial for
indicating the magnitude of the measured quantity. 5 6

Manual and Automatic instruments Self operated and power operated instruments
Manual measuring instruments- service of an operator is
Self operated or passive measuring
required.
instruments- those in which no outside
Eg. Resistance thermometer incorporating a wheat stone bridge power is required for operation.
Automatic measuring instruments- no operater is required. Eg. Dial indicator
Eg. Glass tube. thermometer, Power operated measuring
instruments- those in which some
external power such as electricity,
compressed air and hydraulic supply is
required for operation.
Eg. Electromechanical instruments.

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Null and deflection type instruments Contact and non-contact type instruments
Contact type measuring instruments- the primary
Null type measuring instruments- a zero or sensing element of the instrument is physically
null indication leads to determination of contacted with the measurand.
Eg. Thermometer
the magnitude of unknown quantity.

Deflection Type Instrument. Definition:

The instruments in which the measured
quantity produces physical effects which Non-contact type measuring instruments- no
deflect or displace the moving system of contact b/n the primary sensing element of the
the instruments in known as the deflection instrument and the measurand.
type instrument. Eg. Infrared thermometer
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING Cntd…

INSTRUMENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION Static characteristics- defined for the instrument which
The type of instrument to be used is decided on the characteristics required. measure quantities do not vary with time.
A ±0.5 o C accuracy instrument is allowable for human body (feeling) while it may • E.g. Linearity, sensitivity, resolution, threshold, accuracy
be useless for an instrument in a control system. So for selection the
etc.
performance characteristics of measuring instruments must be known.
Dynamic characteristics- refers to the comparison b/n
Instrument performance characteristics is generally broken down into two, namely
instrument output and ideal output when the input changes
Static characteristics
with time.
Dynamic characteristics,
e.g. speed of response, overshoot, fidelity etc.

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Static characteristics of instruments
1. Accuracy- The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how
close the output reading of the instrument is to the correct
value. E.g. if pressure gauge of range 0 to 100 bar has an error of +-1% of
true value, the pressure of 100 bar could read from 99 to 101 bar.
• The ability of an instrument to show the exact reading.
• Higher the accuracy, lower the error.
• Shown in percentage of error

Error = E= measured value – true value E.g. if pressure gauge of range 0 to 100 bar has an error of +-1% of
full scale reading, the true value of a pressure of 100 bar could be
Or E = system output – system input
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read from 90 to 110 bar. 14

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2. Precision- is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring 3. Range and span

process. a. Range- the region b/n which an instrument is designed to

operate for measuring, indicating or recording of a physical
An instrument which is precise is not necessarily accurate.
quantity. The range is stated by expressing the lower and upper
values.
E.g. Range -100℃ to 100℃
b. Span- algebraic differences b/n the upper and lower range
values of the instrument.
An instrument which have a reading range of -100℃ to 100℃,
Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy High accuracy
Low precision High precision Low precision High precision the span is 200℃
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4. Linearity- when incremental changes in the input and
output are constant over the specified range.

Linearity simply means that the output is linearly

proportional to the input.
Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of x and the
straight line.

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Resolution/ discrimination- This defines the smallest
7. Dead zone- range of input reading when there is no
measurable input change that will permit the detection of
change in output (unresponsive system)
change in the output.
5. Sensitivity- this is the relationship b/n a change in the It is the largest change of input quantity for which

output reading for a given change of the input. there is no output the instrument.

Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument Threshold- if the instrument input is very gradually
magnification.
increased from zero there will be a minimum value
An instrument with a large sensitivity (scale factor) will
required to give a detectable output change. this
indicate a large movement of the indicator for a small input
change.
minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
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9. Hysteresis-
10. Drift-
Zero drift variation in the output
of an instrument which is not
caused by any change in the input.
It is commonly caused by internal
temperature changes and
component instability.

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11. Repeatability- it is the ability of the measuring instrument
to give the same value every time, the measurement of
given quantity is repeated, under the same condition.
Repeatability refers to a sensor’s ability to give identical
outputs for the same input.
Precision (or random) errors cause a lack of repeatability.
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Dynamic characteristics
1. Speed of Response- it is defined as the rapidity with
which an instrument responds to a change in the value of
the quantity being measured.
2. Fidelity- the degree of closeness with which the system
indicates or records the signal impressed upon it.
It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input.
Poor fidelity indicates non-linearity of instrument.
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3. Overshoot- because of mass and
inertia of moving part, i.e. the
pointer of the instrument does
not immediately come to rest in
the final deflected position.

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