58 Science oT C or HIS < = Constant | =R ‘The constant R is called the resistance of the conductor at a particular temperature and is measured in ohms, Resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm if the potential difference are the two ends of the conductor is one volt and the current following through it is one ampere, Experimentally we measure te current flowing through a resistor with the help of an ammeter, connected in series 1 8 circuit. The potental eo ft ateeeading ker ona volimeten Which we couners Mey sale ' The cicuit Ty verify Ohm’s law, we draw a graph between the potential difference and the current [A straight line graph passing through the origin shows the relationship between the potential difference across the fo ends ofa tesistor and the current passing through it. The resistance of the resistor is given by the slope of this graph. PROCEDURE 1. Draw a circuit diagram to verify Ohm’'s law in your notebook. Fig. 42 Note whether the pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark idjusting screw, ided near the base of the pointer, using a screw driver. pees the oe . Note the range and least count of the ammeter and the voltmeter. The least count is give the value of one big division divided by the number of small divisions on the ammeter or eee . Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand i pale coating on them. Pot paper in order to remove the insulating 5. Connect the wires to the resistor, voltmeter, ammeter, plug key and initi one dry ‘ 7 tially only yer the circuit aise a positive one negative terminals of the neces ae coech connected as per the circuit ee uected as per the circuit, Please get the circuit checked from your teacher before conducting the 6 Insert the key in plug to complete the circuit and take readi current ammeter and the Sirdar onsen es ae Add one more dry cell to the circuit and. e r repeat the procedure of step 6 above to take the second set of readings. Add third dry cell, take readings and then add fourth ane cell and complete as 7Voltage and Resistance (OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS. Range of ammeter = sinus A tO annus A Least count of ammeter A Range of voltmeter = ssn V tO sinnssan V Least count of voltmeter nay, Table 41 S.No. Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading Tamperes) V Coots) ‘The mean resistance of the resistor = ..ohms Draw a graph of the observations taking current J corrected values on tx the X-axis and potential difference V corrected values on the Y-axis. a RESULT 5 v ; — 1, From the observations, we observe that R = 7 is nearly constant, 2: Latina joe tation ‘Current | (A) therefore, we can say that V is directly proportional to I. In other oe words, the ohms law is verified. 2. The graph between the current I and the potential difference Vis a straight line, ie,, V is directly proportional to I. v 3. Resistance R of a resistor isthe ratio of “7 and is given by the slope of the V vs. graph. Slee ge Slope = 46=Z Resistance = Z ohm PRECAUTIONS 1. Thick copper wires should be used in the connections and ends must be cleaned properly to allow the current to flow unhindered. 2. Connections must be made securely and tightly.ai ey Equivalent resistance (R,) of a combination of resistors connected in series i higher than th resistance g p the resistor with the highest resistance in the combination. Thus, if we need more resistance in a system th the resistors available with us, we use the combination of resistors in series. EXPERIMENT 5(i) J Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series. AIM MATERIALS REQUIRED Dry cell; two standard resistors, an ammeter; voltmeter (3); plug key; connecting wires; a rheostat and a pie of sand paper. THEORY Incase of two resistors of resistances R, and R, connected in| R,=R +R, series, the equivalent resistance of the combination, ‘The potential difference, V across the combination of resistors is equal to the sum of potential differences across each individual resistors, i.e, V=VitVy But Vy = IR, and V2 = IRp TR, = IR, + IRp or R,=Ri +R In other words, the combined resistance of two resistors connected in series is equivalent to sum ofthe resistances. PROCEDURE 1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove the insulatns coating on them. 2. Note the range and least count of the voltmeter and ammeter. 3. Note whether the pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measur scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw, provide near the base of the pointer, using a screw driver. Connect one of the two resistors in a circuit as per the circuit diagram (A). Put the plug in the key and record the values of current and potential difference from the ammet®! OF voltmeter. Take out the plug from the key. : 5 d Change position of contact on the rheostat and repeat step 5 to get another set of readings of ‘current 2 potential difference. In this way record at least three sets of readings. ‘Then connect the sccond seats ee alone fake rene nee teeter tine tpetenalaiference V7, keeAn a) in Series or 8. Find the resista - istances by applying Ohm’s law (R = ~), Let these values be R, 9. Connect the two resistors in series bet z 18 be Ry and Ry. diagram (B). etween the two terminals of the voltmeter as shown in the circuit Battery HH) — se ego Votimeter 6 Votmeter Circult diagram (A) catadl jram (B) Fig. 82 10. Note the readings of current I and potential difference V by repeating steps 5 and 6. 11. Tabulate the observations and calculate the resistance of the combination. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Range of ammeter = ..... A to Least count of ammeter Range of voltmeter = v Least count of voltmeter Table Sti) fe 5. No. Voltmeter reading “Animeter reading ‘Resistance V colts) amperes) | Reva | | (ohms) Resistor Ry i 2 3. Resistor Ry nt 2 3. ‘Mean value of R = ohm ‘Mean value of R; = ohm . Note fe use the resistors of wn resistance then vaes of Ri an Rs are dlvectl taken and we donot need the table and eaeuations hee,Craoltarayradoyg AUTIONS RESULBS Ss iSera ee Aas 4 bere, ends = the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove the insulating 5. Connect the wires to the resistor, voltmeter, ammeter, plug key, dry cell and the rheostat as per the circuit diagram. 6. Please get the circuit checked from your teacher before conducting the experiment. 7. Insert the key in plug to complete the circuit and take readings of the current (J) on the ammeter and the potential difference (V) on the voltmeter. Remove the key to break the connection. 8, Change value of current by changing the position of contact on the rheostat in the circuit and repeat the procedure of Step 7 to take the second set of readings. In this way, take at least three sets of readings. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Range of ammeter Ato A Least count of ammeter =... A Range of voltmeter = ...... V to « Least count of voltmeter =... V Resistance of the first resistor, R; Resistance of the second resistor, R> = Q Table 5(ii)-1 4 ‘The mean resistance of the combination R, = Calculation of equivalent resistance of the system from the known values Ry and Rs: RESULT The values of Ry from the experiment and the calculated valve Of from known resistanees are equal or nearly equal.PRECAUTIONS . Thick copper wires should b used in the connections and ends must be cleaned properly to allow 4, current to flow unhindered. Connections must be made securely and tightly. Plug key has to be inserted for a small time when you are ready t0 take the readings. Flow of elec, current for a long time may heat the wires and the resistor and change in temperature may change j, results. “Ammeter is to be connected in series to the resistors with its positive terminal connected to the side g wire coming from the positive terminal of the dry cell. ‘Voltmeter is to be connected in parallel to the resistors with its positive terminal connected to the side y ‘wire coming from the positive terminal of the dry cell. While taking readings from the ammeter and the voltmeter ensure that your eye is exactly above the meter to avoid errors.EXPERIMENT 6 J AIM Preparing @ Pemnorary, mount of a leaf peel to show stomata. MATERIALS REQUIRED Fredheaves of dicot plants (like Petunia, Balsam, Sarson or rose) watch glass, petridish, beaker, water, slide, cover slips, razor blade, blotting filter paper, needle, forceps, brush, safranine solution, glycerine, a piece of cotton cloth (to clean slide and lens of microscope), dropper, compounel microscope. THEORY Inyoung aerial parts and leaves ofa plant, the epidermis layer contains small microscopic pores called stomata (singular: stoma). Through these pores exchange of gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs. Stomata can be studied by removing epidermal peel of the leaf. Number, size, type and distribution of stomata is variable indicots and monocots. Dicots have more stomata on the lower surface of leaf, while monocots have stomata on both surfaces. Stomata are generally absent in hydrophytes. Stomata of dicots have kiciney shaped guard cells and monocots have dumb-bell shaped guard cells. Through these stomata, evaporation of water (transpiration) also occurs in leaves. Stomata are closed in dry conditions and at night. PROCEDURE 1, Take fresh leaves of some dicot plant (Petunia or Sarson or Balsom or Rose). Remove the peels from the lower surface of dicot leaf by folding and tearing the leaf as shown in the Fig. 6.2. Folding of eat (amina) Fig, 62 2, Pull out the thin membranous transparent peels from the torn epidermis, Peels can also be obtained by ‘using blade. 3. Put the epidermal peel: not get dried. 4, In a watchglass, aie jn the epidermal peel. -anine to stain the epi I. “i 5 ie Bape . eS ‘peel turns rel in colour Excess stain from peelis ‘removed by transferring it back . After two minutes, to the petridish containing water 1s into a pettidish ful of water. Collect at least S-6 peels of each type. Peels should t small amount of water. Transfer the peels into this watchglase with the help of putEpidermal cet Epidermal coll Guard cel Inner thie ‘al Closed stoma (Open stoma Nuclous Chloroplast ‘Nuctous Outor thin wal Guard cel Choropast Fig. 6406) Dicot s i ig: 64(b) Dicot stomata under high power of microscope (with large cells, less in number) 3. A guard cell consists of a nucleus and many chloroplasts 4, The central pore between two guard cells is known as stomatal pore. RECORD OF OBSERVATIONS 1 Shape of guard cells 2 Number of stomata in the field of microscope 3 Number of epidermal cells in the field of microscope RESULT/CONCLUSION Dicots have kidney shaped guard cells. . Each guard cell is specialised epidermal cell and is smaller than epidermal cell. Each guard cell contains single nucleus and many chloroplasts. Minute pore or stomatal pore is seen inthe temporary mount of wet peel of epidermis. Ifthe leaf peel dries, the pore closes. 5. Under low power of microscope, the size of cells is small bt the number of cells s more. 6. Under high power, the cells are of large size but their number i less, PRECAUTIONS ‘The epidermal peel should be taken from fresh leaf 2, The peel should be of small size. 3. The peel should be taken from the lower surface of dicot leaf because it has more stomata. 4. Peel should be transferred to the stide with brush. 5, Peel should not become dry. 6, Peel should not get folded. 7. Itshould not be over stained.MATERIALS REQUIRED 2 Germinating seeds of gram, pea or beans, conical flask, a d , ans, conical flask, a delivery tube bent twice at 1 cork, thread, a small test tube, 20% potassium hydroxide solution. vaseling woot neht angles, blotting paper in a tray (for germination of seeds) ‘ a rubber water, beaker, wet cotton or wet THEORY Respiration is a catabolic process during which o ganic food (glucose) is oxidised to form carbon dioxide, water and energy. Glucose + Oxygen —> Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy The energy released during oxidation of one molecule of glucose is used to synthesize 38 molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Respiration continues throughout day and night in al cells of living organisms Respiration may take place in the presence of oxygen or in the absence of oxygen. Usually respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen and is called aerobic respiration. There is complete breakdown of food. In yeast and some micro-organisms respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration or fermentation. Respiration in plants can be studied in moist germinating seeds which release carbon dioxide during aerobic respiration. PROCEDURE 1. Take about 30-40 seeds of gram or pea. Germinate them after soaking them overnight and then placing them on wet cotton or wet blotting paper for 2-3 days, 2. Place these germinating seeds in a conical flask. 3. Keep the seeds moist by putting a little water in the conical flask. 4. Take 5 ml. freshly prepared 20% potassium hydroxide solution (KOH) in a small test tube and hang it in the conical flask with a thread. 5, Close the mouth of conical flask with a rubber cork in which twice bent delivery tube is fitted through a hole as shown in the figure. Fig. 74 je solution. ‘Rubber cork firmly holds the thread tied to the small test tube containing potassium hydroxide solut90 6. Make the apparatus air-tight by applying vaseline on the cork. 7. Dip the other end of the bent delivery tube in a beaker of water. 8, Keep the apparatus of experiment undisturbed for two hours in light. 9, Note the change inthe evel of water in the end of the delivery tube which lies in the beaker containing water. OBSERVATIONS ‘After two hours the water is seen to rise in the delivery tube through the end which is dipped in water taken in the beaker as shown in the figure. “Twice bent Delivery tube uber co Final vel eae (Rise in level Swan) Smal test fD_Beaker ‘ube Most germinating seeds Fig. 72 RESULT/CONCLUSION Germinating seeds respire and release carbon dioxide which is absorbed by potassit 5 , ium hydroxide solution kept in the conical flask. This results in partial vacuum in the conical flask. To ‘al that. oes os in ie delivery tube from the water kept in the beaker. Upward rise in the level of proves that germinatin seeds produce carbon dioxide during aerobic respiration. a - PRECAUTIONS: 1. Only moist germinating seeds should be taken in the conical flask. 2. Use freshly prepared concentrated potassium hydroxide solution, 3. Make all the connections air-tight with vaseline. 4. Cotton plug should not be used as itdoes not make apparatus air-tight, 5. Dip the free end of the bent delivery tube in water before making connections air-tight. 6. Handle potassium hydroxide carefully, as it is highly corrosive in nature.— a (ii) Effect on litmus (jo) Reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate MATERIALS REQUIRED. Test tubes, boiling tube, a delivery tube bent twice, a cork with one hole, dilute acetic acid, blue litmus solution, sodium bicarbonate, lime water. THEORY Acetic acid is a colourless liquid at room temperature. It has a pungent, sour smell like that of vinegar. Its freezing point is 17 °C. Acetic acid is soluble in water in all proportions. It behaves as weak acid. Its aqueous solution tums blue litmus red. Acetic acid, on reaction with sodium hydrogen carbonate liberates CO, gas with brisk effervescence. NaFICO, (s) + CH;COOH (aq) —> CHsCOONa (ag) + CO; (g) + H:0 (D) CO; gas can be tested by passing through lime water. It tums lime water milky. PROCEDURE 1. Take dilute solution of acetic acid in a test tube and smell by fanning the vapours towards your nose. 2. Solubility in water ‘Take 5 ml of the given solution of acetic acid and add about 5 ml of water. Observe what happens and record your observation. 3. Effect on litmus f Take a strip of blue litmus paper and dip itn the given acetic acid solution. Repeat this step witha strip of red litmus paper. Observe and record the changes that take place. 4. Reactions with sodium hydrogen. carbonate Take acetic acid solution in a test tube and add a small amount of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate Tait Pass the gas evolved through lime water using a set-up as shown in Fig. 8.1 and record your observations. Test tubo: Lime water ‘calc acid "Sodium Dleatbonate Fig. 81. Reaction of acetic acid on sodium hydrogen carbonate98 Sctncay OBSERVATIONS AND INFERENCE a ‘ieraton Inference 1. Odour ‘The acetic acid solution has a pungent, sour smell like: Acetic acid has a vinegar like smej, that of vinegar 2. Solubility in The given acetic acid solution mixes with water ‘Acetic acid is highly soluble in wate, water uniformly and forms a homogeneous solution. 3. Effect on ‘Acetic acid tums blue litmus red and has no effect Acetic acid behaves like an acid litmus con red litmus. 4. Reaction. ‘A colourless and odourless gas evolves with brisk Acetic acid on reaction with sodiun with sodium effervescence. The gas, when passed through freshly ‘carbonate liberates carbon dioxide hydrogen prepared lime water turns it milky. Thus, the gas with brisk effervescence. carbonate ‘evolved is carbon dioxide | RESULTS 1. Acetic acid has a vinegar like smell. 2. Acetic acid is completely soluble in water. 3. Acetic acid turns blue litmus red and thus behaves like an acid. 4, Acetic acid reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate and liberates carbon dioxide gas with b: effervescence. PRECAUTIONS 1. Do not inhale the vapours of acetic acid but just smell by fanning them towards your nose. 2. While carrying out the reaction of acetic acid with sodium hydrogen carbonate, add only 2 51 amount of sodium bicarbonate to the acetic acid taken in a test tube. 3. Do not touch concentrated solutions of acetic acid. 4, Use freshly prepared lime water. VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS 1. What is the IUPAC name and formula of acetic 5. What happens when a few drops of acetic ait acid? are added to blue litmus solution? Ans. Bthanoic acid, CH;SCOOH Ans, Blue litmus solution turns red. 2. What is the functional group in acetic acid? 6. Whatis the colour given by pH paper with acetit ‘Ans. Carboxyl group or carboxylic acid group, oe COOH. Ans. Acetic acid gives pink colour with pH pape 3. What is the percentage of acetic acid in 7. Why do we consider acetic acid a weak acid? vinegar? Ans. Acetic acid is a weak acid because it is weak! ‘Ans, Vinegar contains 5-8% acetic acid. ionized’in water, a Nine tie reaction talcng pian aaa CH3COOH (aq) = CH,COO™ (eg) +H" acid and ethanol in the presence of acid as 8, What is the physical state of acetic acid at 102” catalyst. temperature (25 °C)? ‘Ans. Esterification ‘Ans. Acetic acid is liquid at room temperature104 Science. EXPERIMENT 9 J AIM Study of the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water. MATERIALS REQUIRED Beaker (100 ml), four test tubes, measuring cylinder (10 ml), measuring cylinder (50 ml), a glass rod, distilled water, tap water, calcium chloride (0.5 g), magnesium sulphate (0.5 g), a sample of soap (4 g). THEORY Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids. They are soluble in water and are able to act as cleansing agents. Salts of higher fatty acids with metals other than sodium and potassium are usually water insoluble and do not find application as cleansing agents. Therefore, hard water, which contains salts of magnesium and calcium, reacts with soap to form magnesium salt of fatty acid and calcium salt of fatty acid 2CyHsCOONa + MgSO, —> (Ci;HysCOO),Mg 1 + NaySO, Soap (Hardness White ppt cof water 2C\7HasCOONa + CaCl, —> (C\HzsCOO),Ca b+ 2NaCl (aréness White ppt ‘of water) ‘These calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids are insoluble in water and separate as curdy white precipitate. Thus, cleaning capacity of soap is less in hard water than in soft water. Cleaning capacity of a soap is compared by comparing the amount of lather produced by a given amount of soap in a fixed amount of water. PROCEDURE a Take four 100 ml beakers and label them as A, B, Cand D. a ‘Take 20 mi of distilled water in beaker A, 20 ml of ground- ‘water (Well water or hand-pump water in beaker B, 20 ml of distilled water and 0.5 g of CaCl; in beaker C and 20 ml of distilled water and 0.5 g of MgSO, in beaker D). . Weigh four pieces of 1 g each from the given sample of soap. Add one piece of soap to each of the beakers A, B, C and D. Stir the solutions gently with different glass rods so that the Soap dissolves, The solutions may be warmed if the soap does not dissolve easily. ‘A Disted water» Sore 4, Allow the solutions to come to room temperature, 6 Biamed wien Ga» Soop 5. Take four test tubes and label them as A, B, C and D. peat sidedaoded = 6. Add 3 ml of soap solution from different beakers to the =a respective test tubes.Cleansing ‘Action of Soap in Soft and Hard Water 105 7. Hold test tube A in your hand, close its mouth with your thumb and shake it by downward strokes. Foam ot lather will be formed by shaking the test tube. maken eRe: ys Shaking the test tube Comparison of the foam formed afler shaking the test tubes Fig. 92 Fig. 93 Measure the length up to which foam appears, with the help of a measuring scale, immediately after shaking. Record the observation. Similarly, repeat Step 7. with test tubes B, C and D. OBSERVATIONS Weight of soap taken in each beaker = 1 g Volume of soap solution taken in each test tube = 3 ml No. of times each tube is shaken = 10 Test abe Sotion Tash Shion “Taira Iitiad.. | Final produced : aaa yon Yann A Soap solution in distilled water: B Soap solution in ground-water (well water) © Soap solution in distilled water containing CaCl, : D Soap solution in distilled water ; containing MgSO, : RESULT 1. Maximum length of foam is produced in test tube ... test tube ... . 2. Cleaning capacity of soap is maximum in the sample of water taken in test tube Jength of foam produced in itis maximum. 3. Cleaning capacity of soap is minimum in the sample of water taken in test tube .. Jength of foam produced in it is minimum. _ and minimum length of foam is produced in because the ... because thePRECAUTIONS 1, Take soap pieces of exactly equal weight to prepare different solutions. 2, Volumes of water taken in different beakers should be equal. 3. Take exactly equal volumes of soap solutions in the test tubes. 4. Give equal number of strokes to the test tubes A, B, Cand D in the same way. 5. During shaking, the liquid should not spill out. 6. Measures the length of liquid (including foam) immediately after shaking because the foam starts with the passage of time. Segof Light (Focal Length of a Concave Minor) THEORY = Goncave mirror is a spherical mirror, outer surface of which i polished and inner hollow stirface fl face is reflecting. For finding the focal length of a concave mirror, a distant obt id object, which is ata distance many many times the focal length of hogs eeucin) 8 selected. A distant Rays coming from such an object can be considered as a object after reflection meet in the focal plane of the mirror and form a real, i imi 2 : th inverted and diminished image of the object. The distance of this image from the pole of the concave i 5 esc 0 pol ave mirror is measured. It is equal to the focal PROCEDURE 1. Mount the given concave mirror in the mirror stand. 2. Select a distant object such as a tree /building which is visible from the window of your laboratory. 3. Place a white cardboard screen at some distance in front of the mirror. 4, Tum the face of the concave mirror towards the distant object like tree. Try to obtain a distinct image of the object on the screen by moving the screen either backward or forward. You may have to turn the concave mirror to obtain a distinct image of the object. 5. Note down the position of the screen and concave mirror stand with the help of a half metre scale. Calculate the distance between the position of mirror stand and the screen. This distance is equal to the focal length of the concave mirror. 6. Repeat the above experiment twice by changing the position of the mirror stand and note the corresponding change in the position of the screen. Record the focal length in each case. Fig. 1003 7. Calculate the mean value of the focal length. Concave mirror Miro stand _ OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: Least count of metre scale = cm. S.No. Position of the concave Position ofthe sir screen Xem Yom i vom = 5 cial ei cm 3. em om ‘Mean value of focal length of the concave mirror, pa fttethe2 RESULT ‘The focal length of the given concave mirror = PRECAUTIONS 1. The distant object should be clearly visible with naked eyes, 2. The concave mirror should be fixed in the vertical plane. 3. Record the position of sereen and the mirror only when a well defined, inverted and diminished ing of a distant object is formed on the screen. 4, While measuring the distance, the scale should be horizontal and at the base of the screen and theming stand. 5. Position of the mirror stand and screen stand should not be disturbed while measuring the distances Note: It may be noted that this is only an approximate method for determination of focal length ofa concave mirror. For an accurate determination of focal length, parallax removal methods using an optic | bench are employed. VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by reflection of Ans. (f) The angle of incidence is equal to the age light? Ans. The phenomenon of return of a beam of light when it encounters the boundary between two media is called reflection of light. 2. What is the nature of image formed by a plane mirror? ‘Ans. Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual, erect, has the same size as that of object and lies as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. 3. What do you mean by spherical mirror? ‘Ans. A spherical mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface can be considered to form a part of the surface of a hollow sphere. 4. Define convex mirror. Ans. A convex mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, that is, faces away from the centre of the sphere. 5. Define concave mirror, Ans. A concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere. 6. State the laws of reflection, Ans, Themid-point ofa spherical mirroriscalledy* Ans. Principal axis is the imaginary line p= z ; sl Ans. Concave mirror. This gives rise to # P® Ans. The angle of reflection will be 40°- of reflection. (i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and te normal to the reflecting interface atthe pot of incidence are all in the same plane. 7. Define the term pole and aperture. and the diameter of the rim of the spheti® mirror is called its aperture. 8. Define principal axis. through the pole and the centre of curvatu®® a spherical mirror. i 9. What will be the nature of image forme! concave mirror for a distant object? The image formed will be real, inverted diminished. 10. Which type of mirror is used in a torch? aod beam of light emerging from the front. UL. If the angle between the incident ray plane mirror is 50°, what is the "8 reflection?eco! Length of a Convex Lens M ng N @ ® Fig: 10(t3 (2) Converging rays in a convex lens and (8) Divelgng rye na concave A lens has two principal foci, F, and F; 3 pecien of the principal focus from the optical centre ofthe lens is called its focal length (). plane perpendicular to the principal axis and incipa ae ipal axis and passing through the principal focus of the lens is called When a beam of light from a distant object is passed through a convex lens, the rays after refraction converge in the focal plane and form a highly diminished and inverted image of the object. The distance between the image formed and the optical centre of the lens is equal to the focal length of the lens. The Power (P) of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is a measure of degree of convergence or divergence achieved by the lens. Fig, 10(1)-4 Ray diagram for the focal length of convex lens 1 ‘ocal length (f) The S11. Unit of power is dioptre. It is denoted by letter D. ‘A thin lens has larger focal length and smaller power. gth of a convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object. Power (P) AIM Determination of the focal le |ALS REQUIRED MATERI pa a white screen and a metre scale. ‘A-convex lens, a Jens stand, i t ro tens which is thicker in the middle and tapering at the edges. An objec Which is situated a Convex Tens 82 ene the focal length ofthe lens, is regarded as an object at inf, ‘The rays coming st lis ybject after a distance mary. Ur can be considered as a beam of parallel rays, Parallel ay» from such a distant object an a ed, real igh a convex lens converge in the focal plane ofthe lens and form a highly diminished, re Poy yeti)and inverted image of that object. The distance of the image formed from the optical centre of the lens gy, the focal length of the convex lens. PROCEDURE 41. Mount the given convex lens in the lens stand. 2. Select a distant object such as a tree/building which is visible from the window of your laboratory, 3. Place a white screen at some distance in front of convex lens. 4, Turn the face of the convex lens towards the distant object like tree. Try to obtain a distinct image f the object on the screen by moving the screen either backward or forward. Convex ens Rays from distant bet CConvexiens stand. 20 i je eat Jeng | Fig. 100). 5. Nae nee fie ection of the sare and ote Jens stand with the help of a metre scale. Calculate listance between the position of convex lens stand and the . The distance i the focal length of the convex lens. eee Repeat the above experiment twice by changing the position of the convex lens stand and note the corresponding change inthe position of the screen, Record the focal length in each case 7. Calculate the mean value of the focal length. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS Least count of metre scale =... cm.focal length of a Convex Lens Mean value of focal length of the convex lens, RESULT The focal length of the given convex lens PRECAUTIONS 1, The distant object should be clearly visible with naked eyes. 2, The convex lens should be fixed in the vertical upright position. 3, Record the position of screen and the convex lens only when a well defined, inverted and diminished image of a distant object is formed on the screen. 4, While measuring the distance, the scale should be horizontal and at the base of the screen and Iens stand. 5, Position of the lens stand and screen stand should not be disturbed while measuring the distances. Note: It may be noted that this is only an approximate method for determination of focal length of a convex lens, For an accurate determination of focal length, parallex removal methods using an optical bench are employed. [VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS J 1, What do you understand by refraction of 5. Define concave lens. light? ‘Ans. A concave lens is bound by two spherical ns. mnge in the path of a ray of light when it surfaces, curved inwards. A concave lens is — ae aac edium to the other. thicker at the edges than at the middle. acumarimnienanece onmeerone@oreaiiant © Docent ag oct, by a convex Tens? An imaginary straight line passing through the Ta ia vent) inverted and two centres of curvature of a lens is called its Ans. The po aeS Loe cite principal axis. diminishes 1. Why is convex lens called a conver; lens? i Tens? y ming lens 3. What do you mean by the term Aconvexlens converges light rays and hence is ‘Ans. Alens is a transparent material rea by two ieee surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are . How do you define principal focus of a convex spherical. Tens? 4. Define convex lens. .. Principal focus of a convex lens isa point on its ‘pnst@aleopred iene ie eneywnien ss vound by two principal axis where a beam of light incident Spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. It is parallel to its axis converges after passing aecerat the middle and tapering atthe edges. through the lens. 2022//12)'2109:318H (The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the gy given colour and for the same pair of transparent media. Thus, fg The constant ris called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to first medium, This, is also known as Snell s law of refraction. The value of the refractive index for a given pair of media depends upon the speed of light in the tp media. The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1is given by the ratio of the speed of gh. medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2. _ Speed of light in medium 1_0, ~ Speed of light in medium 2 ~ v2 If medium 1 is vacuum or air, the refractive index of the medium 2 is called the absolute refra and is represented as 11. Ny ctive index > Speed of light in air 2” Speed of light in medium 2 The speed of light in vacuum (or in the ait) is 3 x 10® ms“. This is the maximum speed of light. Ttmay be noted that the refractive index of a medium changes with the change in the wavelength of the light used because rays of different wavelengths travel with different speeds in a medium. Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangul Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, AIM lar glass slab for different angles of incidence. angle of emergence and interpret the result. APPARATUS/MATERIALS REQUIRED > Glass slab, white sheets of paper, drawing board, drawing pins, pins, protractor, a scale, pencil, erases & THEORY When a ray of light travels obliquely from an optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium, it ben towards the normal. On the other hand, when a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium 0 2 optically rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. This phenomenon is known as refraction. A ray light incident on a rectangular glass slab bends towards the normal on entering the glass slab. The angle refraction ( study of Binary Fission and Budding PRECAUTIONS knob when the slide is under high power. 1. What is reproduction? Ans. Reproduction is the process. by which organisms produce blue prints of the body type in the form of offsprings of their own species. 2. How many types of reproduction are there? Name them. ‘Ans. Three types of reproduction are there. These are: Asexual, sexual and vegetative. 3. What is asexual reproduction? Ans, In asexual reproduction, one parent or organism. gives rise to two or more new organisms 2022, (#) Theslide shows budding in yeast. Some yeast cells is formed by division of nucleus of the parent cell. 1, Set the mirror of the microscope before placing the slide on the sta . Clean the slide, lens, mirror, with a piece of neat cotton cloth. 3. Focus the slide first under low power using the coarse adjustment knob. 4, Then focus the slide under high power using fine 5. Move the lens of the microscope gradually while looking into eyepiece for focusing of the slide. VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS J ‘Ans. Amoeba and Paramoecium. ings). E Which when matures u OE Pe ace gent nev individual The 13. Name to organisms in which budding cus. wchaves as independent new individu pew individuals are identical to the parents. Ans. Yeast and Hydra I tupe of division occurs during asexual 14, Splitting of the two cells during binary fiston 0 Seat in Amoeba takes place in which plane? ana ’ ‘Ans. It can take place in any plane ns, Mitosis >» Caceres 3. Which type of rgenisms has inary sion? NS ooh ‘ weProtozoa-animals). Ans. When there is development of outgrowths Ana, Uniéellias (M00 ot Se es kane (buds) due to repeated cell divisionsat a specific 6. Which type of ssprodicie gs site, these buds develop into small individuals Ans. Binary fission. en and on maturity, these individuals separate from. 7. In binary fission from one parent cells, how the parent body and become independent eimjets individuals are formed? ei 416, Is the new individual formed by binary fission Ans. TWO. multiple fission? similar or dissimilar to the parent individual? 8 ee on eingle celled orsanis@ ang, wile similar othe parent individual Ans, In multiple Soy daughter cells simaltancously. 77, pon can woe say that Amoeba is immortal? divi example ofindividualshowing™ItPle An, By binary fission, one individual of Amoeba ee divides into two. Each matures into new Fie jgral parasite (Plasmodium) individual. No part of the parent body is lost ‘Ans. Malar 141 show outgrowth orb rad. Bud also has nucle Sometimes chains of buds are also sees na nt ige Of the microscope. adjustment knob only. Do not use coarse adjustment 10. What are the different stages of binary fission? Ans, These are (8 Constriction in the middle of the parent cell. (#) Division of nucleus (ii) Division of cytoplasm (2) Splitting of the parent cell into two daughter cells Which type of reproduction occurs in yeast cell? . Asexual reproduction by budding, Name two organisms in which binary fission 1, 2 Taberis i avelength of the ray of light. Thus, rq Ree aaetl decreases ih er ation whereas the st HEM hag er wavelength, has Ma en gee aon Due to difference in the angle of deviation for li through a prism, splits into a band of seven colours. The angle of incidence (i), the angle of emergence (€), are related as: : ite light, wh different colours, a beam of white light, when pa ight of ‘phenomenon is known as dispersion of light, - the angle of deviation (D) and the angle of prism Li+Le=ZLAt+ZD EXPERIMENT 13 J AIM Tracing the path of the rays of light through a glass prism. APPARATUS/MATERIALS REQUIRED A glass prism, drawing board, white sheets of paper, drawing pins, pins, a scale and a protractor. THEORY When a ray of light passes through a glass prism, it undergoes refraction twice. The ray of light first enters from air to glass and bends towards the normal to the surface. The second refraction takes place when the ray enters from glass to air. Here it bends away from the normal as the ray is moving from a denser medium to rarer medium. Due to the peculiar shape of the prism, in both cases the ray of light bends away from the direction of the incident ray. The angle through which the emergent ray deviates from the direction ofthe incident 1) is called the angle of deviation. The angle of deviation decreases with increase in the angle of incidence, reaches a minimum value and then starts increasing. ‘The angle of deviation decreases with increase inthe wavelength ofthe light ray. PROCEDURE 1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins. 2, Place a glass prism on it in such a way that i rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of the pris™ using a sharp pencil. 3. Drawa straight line PE, inclined at an angle of 45°, to one of the refracting surfaces, say AB, of the pris™ 4, Fix two pins, say at points P and Q, on the line PE as shown in Fig, 13,2, 5. Look for the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face AC. 6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S, such that the pins at R and § and ing at Pand Qlie on the same straight line. thetmazes atthe nist 7. Remove the pins and the glass prism. Encitele the points P, Q, R and § with a pencil 8. Line PE meets the boundary of the prism at point E. Join and produce the line meets the boundary of the prism at point F. Join points E and F. 9. Draw perpendiculars to the refracting surfaces AB and AC of the prism at poi respectively Mark the angle of incidence (2 i), the angle of refraction (2 r) mene nee eae (Ze. points R and $ so that they ‘Refction of Light Through a Glass Primm) 10. Extend PE upto a point H. Similarly, ext Similarly, extend Fg 1 packovards; tll #t meets the extdhdealinpaaepta o at point G. The angle HGF is called the angle of deviation. 11. Measure the angle of incidence (Z i), the angle of prism (2 A) and the angle of deviation (2 D) with the help of a protractor. 12, Repeat the procedure with different angles of incidence such as 60° and 30°. In each case, measure the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation, EF Aetseus Record your observations. FS Ener y Za: Ange ote pam 2 -Ange of devon OBSERVATIONS we Angle of prism (ZA) = SNe. “Angle of incidence Angle of deviation Zi z vz) a 30° ak 45° 3. oo" RESULT 1. The emergent ray is not parallel to the incident ray. 2. The tay of light suffers two refractions on passing through a prism. First it enters from air to glass and bende owas the normal, Secondly the light ray enters from glass to air and bends away from the eet This results in bending of the emergent ray at an angle to the direction of the incident ray, i towards the base of the prism. PRECAUTIONS ‘The prism should be clear, transparentand clean. Usea sharp pencil to draw outline of the prism and rays of Hight ‘Angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60” “The pins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper. ould be between 6 to 8 ems. ‘The distance between the pins s § should be in the straight line when viewed from the side AC of the ‘the feet of the pins P,Q, Rand prism. ey pepe 7 nner removing the pthe masks shou be eel PY pencil rhe angles should be measured accurately using a protractor, 8, Theangle Blo eTar yale 4Dicot Seed BASIC CONCEPTS: Higher plants reproduce by sexual means in which two parents (male and female) form gametes or germ cells. Fusion of these germ cells results in the formation of zygote which les inside the ovule of ovary. Fesion or fertilization Yesults in the formation of fruit which is a mature ovary. Ovule matures into seed and zygote ‘develops into embryo. Fruit protects seed in Angiosperms. Angiosperms are divided into two groups: Dicots and Monocots. In dicot plants, a typical seed has three parts, These are seed coat, two cotyledons and an embryo. Embryo develops into new plant called seedling under proper conditions of water, oxygen and temperature. This phenomenon is called germination. When seeds are soaked in water, the water will enter inside through a pore called micropyle and embryo becomes xtive, The seed is attached to the inner margin of the fruit by means of hilum. Seed coat protects the seed. Examples of dicot seeds are pea, gram, beans, etc. Monocot plants differ from dicots as there is only one cotyledon in monocot seed lag dmeranped indicot seed. Examples of monocot seeds are wheat, rice, et. Structure of embryo cannot be stuciel lt) seeds. To study the structure of embryo of dicot seed, the seeds are soaked in water ovemightane BS a by it gently with forceps. bry removed. Then embryo is taken out very carefully from the seed by opening it enUY OA TT dos are asa plumule (future shoot) at its upper end and radicle (Future root) at its lower end. Present two cotyledons which store food. EXPERIMENT 15 l AM i i) or Red kidney bea | Mentification of the different parts of an embryo of @ dicot seed (Pea, Gram slide, MATERIALS REQUIRED fr, forceps, needle plotting paper Pico seeds (Pea, Gram or Red kidney bean), beaker, water, wet cl0l Magnifying glass or dissection microscope and brush. 159160 Science. THEORY yy Fertilized ovule is called seed. In higher plants like angiosperms, seed is protected in the fruit. There ay three parts of a seed. These are seed coat, an embryo and cotyledons. Seed coat protects the seed, 4n embryo is the future plant protected inside the seed. Embryo has plumule (future shoot) at its upper end ang radicle (future root) at its lower end. Two cotyledons are attached on the sides of embryonal axis in dog, seed. Cotyledons store food for the seedling (young plant) which grows from the embryo. PROCEDURE ay Soak a few seeds of dicots (Gram, Pea or Red kidney bean) and keep them overnight. 2B Drain the excess water and cover the seeds with a wet cloth and leave them for a day. (Seeds should not get dry). 3. Peel off the outer skin carefully from a seed. 4. Cut open the seed carefully using forceps. 5. Observe the different parts after separating it into two halves. 6. . Take out the embryo and place it on the slide in a drop of water. Study its structure with the help ofa magnifying glass or under dissection microscope. . Record the observations and draw its diagram. Label the parts of the embryo. OBSERVATIONS Dry seeds when soaked in water swell up. Water enters the seed through a minute pore called micropyle. There is a scar on the seed coat called hilum. Seed is attached to the fruit with the help of hilum. Gram and other dicot seeds contain two cotyledons which store food. Outer covering of the seed is called seed coat. ‘There is an embryo inside the seed which is the future plant. Embryo has plumule (future shoot) at its upper end and radicle (future root) at its lower end, embroyal axis and two fleshy cotyledons are attached on its sides which store food. Fig. 152 Structure of Embryo in dicot seed (seed cut open) Fig. 15.1 Gram seed RESULT/CONCLUSION ‘When seeds absorb water, they swell up and the seed coat ruptures. Inside seed, there is an embryo (futur® plant) which has two cotyledons (in a dicot seed), a plumule (future shoot) and a radicle (future root). aoeDicot Seed PRECAUTIONS 4, Seeds should be completely covered by water on the first day and soaked over 2, Then excess water should be drained and seeds should be kept in a wet ere for a day. 3, Seeds should not get dried. | 4 Seed coat should be carefully peeled off. 5, Use forceps to remove embryo. VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS | 1. How many cotyledons are therein a dicot seed? Ans. It forms future root in the germinating seed. | Ans. Two. 2. Give tivo exainples of dicot seeds. | Ans. Gram and Pea. | 3. When embryo develops into seedling, this phenomenon is known as y | Ans. Germination. 4, Where is food stored in the seed and when it is used? | Ans. Food is stored in the cotyledons and is used ) when seed germinates to form new plant: 5. What is the function of cotyledons? ‘Ans. Cotyledons store food for the future plant (seedling). 6. Why seeds are soaked in water overnight? | Ams. Cotyledons of seeds absorb water and ‘embryo ‘becomes active. 7. What is the function of seed coat? ‘Ans. Itprotects the parts of embryo. 8, What are the parts of embryo? ‘Ans. These are plumule, radicle and cotyledons. ‘9. What is the function of radicle? sn each of the following questions, four options are ‘econ of which only one siyrect option Mt Food is provided to the future plant from part of the seed. (a) plumule (o) cotyledon option is correct. Select the (b) radicle (@ seed coat al i MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS a 161 10. What is micropyle? ‘Ans, It is a small pore on seed through which water enters inside the seed when they are soaked in water. 1. What is plumule? ‘Ans. It is future shoot of the plant. 42. Plumule and radicle are present on which part of the embryo? ‘Ans. On embryonal axis, plumule is present atthe ‘upper end and radicle at the lower 413, Root system of plant develops fom which part of the embryo? ‘Ans. From radicle. ‘ 14. New plant develops from which part of the seed? ‘Ans. From the embryo. 45. What is the shape of red kidney bean seed? ‘Ans. Itis kidney shaped. i Te, Whatis the number of cotyledons inmonocot ‘Ans. One cotyledon. 17, Give two examples of monocot plants: ‘Ans. Wheat and maize he protective covering of the sees (a) micropyle (@) hilum. (©) seed coat (@ cotyledon 2. Small pore on the Small pote i auring soaNins ved through which water