(Sci) Notes

CHOONG HAN JUN (COPYRIGHTED) ©
DIVERSITY:
Physical Properties
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
3 KEY CONCEPTS
• Understanding the properties and choices of materials involved in the production of common household items
• Density
• Strength
• Hardness
• Flexibility
• Electrical conductivity
• Thermal conductivity
• Boiling/melting point
• Calculate density using its formula (mass/volume) and usage of the appropriate unit
• Classify common everyday objects
4 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Make estimations and measure accurately length, volume, and mass of matter using appropriate instruments
• Predict whether an object will sink or float by comparing density of object with surrounding environment
• Usage of data on properties of different materials to evaluate their uses
• Evaluate the environmental impact of excessive use of paper and disposal of plastics
KEY CONCEPT
MATTER
MATTER refers to anything that has mass and volume.
Mass = amount of matter something has

Volume = amount of space something occupies
METHOD 1 – STATES OF MATTER
Matter
Solids Liquids Gases
METHOD 2 – KINDS OF MATERIALS
Materials
Ceramics Plastics Metals Glass Fibres
CLASSIFYING
NON-LIVING THINGS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Definition: A physical property is one that can be observed without changing the
substance of the object.
Physical Explanation Examples
Property
Strength Strength refers to the ability of a material to • Steel is a strong
support a heavy load without breaking or material
tearing. • Paper is a weak
material
Hardness Hardness refers to the ability of a material to • Diamond is a hard
scratch another material. material
Ø A material can scratch something softer • Cloth is a soft
than itself, but not one that is harder than material
itself
Flexibility Flexibility refers to the ability of a material to • Rubber is a flexible
bend without breaking and return to its material
original shape. • Wood is an
inflexible material
Electrical Electrical conductivity of a material is a • Copper is a good
Conductivity measure of how easily electricity passes conductor of
through it. electricity
• Rubber is a poor
conductor of
electricity
Heat/thermal Thermal conductivity of a material refers to • Metal is a good
conductivity how easily heat passes through it. conductor of heat
Ø Materials that allow heat to pass through • Wood is a poor
easily are heat conductors conductor of heat
PHYSICAL
Melting point Melting point refers to the temperature at -
which a material changes state from solid to
liquid.
PROPERTIES Boiling point Boiling point refers to the temperature at

which a material changes state from liquid to
gas.
-
Material Examples Physical properties
Plastic • Plastic bags • Flexible

• Plastic food • Low density
containers • Strong
• Plastic electrical • Poor conductor of heat and
socket electricity
Glass • Glass window • Not flexible
panes • High density
• Brittle
• Poor conductor of heat and
electricity
Metal • Aluminium drink • Hard
cans • Low – high density
• Copper electrical • (Most) High melting and
wires boiling points
• Gold jewelry • Good conductor of heat and
electricity
Ceramic • Porcelain bowls • Hard but brittle
• Cooking pot • Poor conductor of heat and
electricity
PHYSICAL
• High melting point
Fibre • Cotton clothes • Flexible
• Rattan chair • Low density
PROPERTIES OF
• Poor conductor of heat and
electricity
MATERIALS
To choose the best material for usage, we must consider its properties.
KEY CONCEPT
DENSITY
DENSITY
Definition: Density of a substance is the mass of the substance per unit volume
DENSITY =
%&''
()*+%,
The SI unit for density is kg/m3.
How to determine volume?

Volume refers to the amount of space a substance occupies.
The SI unit for volume is cubic metre (m3).
!
• Sphere: V = " 𝜋𝑟 "
• Cylinder: V = 𝜋𝑟 # ℎ
$
• Cone: V = " 𝜋𝑟 # ℎ
• Cuboid: V = 𝑙 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 ℎ
How to measure mass?

Mass of an object refers to the amount of matter it has.
DENSITY The SI unit for mass is kilogram (kg).

KEY CONCEPT
ENVIRONMENT
CONSERVATION
Production of paper
We cut down forests to produce paper. Losing our forests means:

• We lose animals and plants that live in forests (decreased biodiversity)
Paper production also uses a lot of energy and water. This contributes to:
• Water and air pollution
Production of plastics
Plastics do not break down easily. This means that plastics do not decompose
in the soil (non-biodegradable), and can take hundreds of years to break down.
Plastic waste in the ocean kill many animals that mistake it for food.
Oil is also used in the production of paper. We may run out of oil in the next
50 years or so, which is a precious resource.
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
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DIVERSITY:
Chemical Composition
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
5 KEY CONCEPTS
• Distinguish among elements, compounds and mixtures & classify substances accordingly
• State that elements are the basic building blocks of living & non-living matter, and classify them according to properties
• Show an understanding of compounds and mixtures
• Distinguish among solute, solvent, and solution
• Understand that solutions and suspensions are mixtures
3 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Classify elements as metals and non-metals based on their characteristic properties
• Investigate the factors that affect the solubility and rate of dissolving of substances
• Evaluate how the disposal of harmful pure substances (eg. Mercury) and mixtures (eg. Sewage) impact the environment
KEY CONCEPT
ELEMENTS
ELEMENTS
Elements are the basic building blocks of matter.
Definition: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down

into any simpler substances by chemical methods.
CLASSIFICATION
OF ELEMENTS
As metals/non- In the periodic

By state
metals table
Properties of metals Properties of non-metals
• Shiny • Dull & soft
• Good conductors of heat and • Poor conductors of heat and

electricity electricity
ELEMENTS
• Malleable (can be beaten into • Brittle (solid non-metals)
different shapes without
breaking)
• Ductile (can be pulled into
shape without breaking)
• Some corrode easily while • Do not corrode
others do not
KEY CONCEPT
COMPOUNDS
COMPOUNDS
Definition: A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements
chemically joined together
Many elements combine directly to form compounds in fixed proportions.
Examples of compounds
1. WATER is made up of hydrogen and oxygen
2. COMMON SALT is made up of sodium and chlorine
3. SUGAR is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Characteristics of compounds
1. The different elements in a compound are joined together in a fixed
proportion by mass
2. Compounds have different properties from the elements they are made
up of
3. Compounds cannot be separated into their elements by physical means
COMPOUNDS
KEY CONCEPT
MIXTURES
MIXTURES
Definition: A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or
compounds) which are not joined together chemically
Matter
Mixtures
Pure substances
May consist of more than
Consists of just one element
one element and/or
or just one compound
compound together
Elements Solutions
MIXTURES
Compounds Suspensions
KEY CONCEPT
SOLUTIONS &
SUSPENSIONS
SOLUTIONS
Solutions are formed when one substance (solute) dissolves into another
substance (solvent)
Eg. Sugar (solute) dissolves in water (solvent) to give a solution (sugar water)
Solute + solvent = solution
SUSPENSIONS
Suspensions are formed when the solute does not dissolve but remains
suspended inside the solvent
Eg. Sand (solute) does not dissolve in water (solvent), giving a suspension
Behaviour of particles in a suspension
SOLUTIONS & • When a solution is passed through a filter paper, no residue is left behind
• When a suspension is passed through a filter paper, a residue is left behind
(solid particles are too large to pass through the pores of the filter paper)
SUSPENSIONS
KEY CONCEPT
SOLUBILITY &
DISSOLVING
SOLUBILITY
Definition: Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve
in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature.
Factors affecting
solubility
Type of solute Type of solvent Temperature
Rate of dissolving is a measure of how fast a substance dissolves in a solvent.
Factors affecting
rate of dissolving
Temperature Surface area Stirring
SOLUBILITY Most solids dissolve

faster at higher
The larger the
surface area of the
solid, the faster the
Solids dissolve
faster when solution
is stirred
temperatures
rate of dissolving
KEY CONCEPT
DISPOSAL OF HARMFUL
SUBSTANCES
Human waste
Human waste may enter rivers directly from floating toilets.

This waste contains harmful bacteria that can cause diseases like cholera.
Untreated waste water
Untreated waste water from factories is sometimes dumped into rivers or the
sea.
This water contains poisoning substances like mercury or lead compounds.
These substances can damage our organs and affect children’s
development.
Electronic waste
Electronic waste like your old mobile phones are often discarded in landfills.
These devices contain harmful compounds and metals like lead and
mercury. In a landfill, these substances can leak into soil and into water
supplies.
Nuclear waste
ENVIRONMENTAL Waste released from nuclear plants include plutonium and radium.
Improper disposal of these substances can contaminate soil and water
supplies, which can lead to cancer and affect the development of unborn
IMPACTS babies (genetic damage).

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DIVERSITY:
Separation Techniques
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
5 KEY CONCEPTS
• Understand the basic principles involved in the following separation techniques:
• Magnetic attraction
• Filtration
• Evaporation
• Distillation
• Paper chromatography
• Explain how constituents of a mixture can be separated based on their properties using the techniques above
• State examples of applications of various separation techniques in everyday life and industries
• Show awareness of techniques involved in obtaining drinking water from non-potable sources (eg. Distillation of sea water
in desalination plants and filtration and reverse osmosis of sewage water
• Understand why water is a precious resource and the need to conserve it
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Separate constituents of mixtures using appropriate separation techniques
KEY CONCEPT
PHYSICAL METHODS
OF SEPARATION
(MIXTURES)
MAGNETIC ATTRACTION
Magnetic attraction is used to separate magnetic materials from non-
magnetic materials.
Example: using a magnet to separate iron filings (magnetic material)

from sulfur (non-magnetic material)
Application: separating objects made of iron or steel from other objects
in scrap metals
FILTRATION
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
Example: filtering sand (insoluble solid) from water (liquid)

Application:
• Our nose acts as a filter by trapping small solid particles in the air to
prevent them from entering our lungs
• Raw sewage is filtered to remove large solids, followed by separation
of smaller particles
MAGNETIC
ATTRACTION &
FILTRATION
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution
Example: evaporating a solution of sugar water to obtain sugar

(residue)
Application: seawater is evaporated by the heat of the sun, leaving
behind solid salt that can be obtained
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
Paper chromatography is used to separate coloured substances in a
mixture
Example: separate different colours in a dye (mixture)

Application:
• Identify colours in dyes
EVAPORATION &
• Identify coloured substances used in food products
• Detect pollutants in water
PAPER
CHROMATOGRAPHY
SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Distillation is used to separate a pure liquid from a solution.
2 processes are involved:

1. Boiling/evaporation (water from solution changes to steam)
2. Condensation (steam cools to give water)
Example: distilling seawater (solution) to obtain pure water (pure liquid)

Application:
• Production of distilled water
• Desalination (distillation of seawater)
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Used to separate a mixture of two or more liquids which have
different boiling points
DISTILLATION Example: separating alcohol from water

Application: oil refineries use fractional distillation to obtain different
types of oil (petrol, kerosene, diesel fuel etc)
KEY CONCEPT
PURE WATER
FOR SINGAPORE
FOUR NATIONAL TAPS

Rainwater from local catchments
Water is collected through a network of drains, canals, rivers, and stormwater
collection ponds and channeled to our 17 reservoirs for storage.
Imported water
Singapore imports water from Johor, Malaysia under its second bilateral
agreement (which will expire in 2061)
Desalinated water
Desalination can be obtained via distillation or reverse osmosis
FYI: reverse osmosis involves using a membrane to separate water from the salt
in seawater
NEWater
NEWater is highly purified reclaimed water, produced from treated used
water that is further purified using advanced membrane technologies like
reverse osmosis.
• NEWater meets 30% of the nation’s water needs

• NEWater is primarily for non-drinkable industrial uses (eg. In electronics
and power generation industries)
SOURCES OF CONSERVATION OF WATER
WATER Water needs to be conserved so that we can continue to have an adequate

supply of water in the future to meet the demands of an ageing
population.
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DIVERSITY:
Diversity of Living Things
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
4 KEY CONCEPTS
• Show an awareness of biodiversity as the variety of life on earth
• Show an awareness that bacteria can have beneficial or harmful effects
• Recognise importance of biodiversity to the stability of natural systems, and its benefits to humans
• Discuss the reasons for the depletion or extinction of some plants or animals
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Construct and use simplified dichotomous keys in identifying and classifying living things
KEY CONCEPT
CLASSIFYING
LIVING THINGS
CLASSIFYING LIVING THINGS
Classification helps us to:

• Group living things according to similar features
• See similarities and differences between living things
• Identifying living things
Classification
Animals Plants
Flowering plants
Vertebrates (animals (with flowers)
with backbones)
CLASSIFYING
Eg. Water lily
LIVING THINGS Invertebrates

(animals without
backbones)
Non-flowering plants
(without flowers)
Eg. Bird’s nest fern
CLASSIFYING VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates
Scales No scales
Fins Feathers
No feathers
(Fish) (Birds)
No fins Lay eggs

(Reptiles) (Amphibians)
CLASSIFYING Do not lay eggs

(Mammals)
LIVING THINGS
DICHOTOMOUS KEY
A dichotomous key is a method used to classify objects into specific
categories based on their characteristics.
Plants and animals are identified by dividing them into two smaller
groups at each group.
- At each step, you just have to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to the
question.
Example
DICHOTOMOUS
KEY
KEY CONCEPT
BACTERIA
BACTERIA
How is bacteria helpful?
Health
• Many bacteria are found in our digestive system, which help in the
digestion of many kinds of food
• Some bacteria can help prevent disease-causing bacteria from
attaching themselves to our intestines
• Some bacteria are responsible for production of vitamins in the body
Decomposition
• Bacteria in the soil help to break down dead organisms into smaller
substances that plants absorb and use for growth
Food production
• Bacteria that cause milk to become sour are used to produce cheese
and yoghurt
How is bacteria harmful?

• Some bacteria cause diseases including cholera, tuberculosis, and
BACTERIA sexually-transmitted infections (STIs)

• Bacteria can cause food to decay and go ‘bad’
• Some bacteria get onto food where they release harmful substances
that cause food poisoning
KEY CONCEPT
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is important as it:
• Benefits our lives
• Helps to keep the natural environment stable
HOW DOES BIODIVERSITY BENEFIT US?

The earth’s plants and animals provide us with things we cannot live without,
such as food, medicine, and raw materials.
• Sheep provide us with wool to make woolen clothes

• Cows provide us with leather to make belts, bags, and milk and beef for
food
• Trees provide wood to make furniture and build houses
HOW DOES BIODIVERSITY KEEP THE NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT STABLE?
A stable environment is one where the plants and animals in it change very
little, or one that recovers quickly following a change (eg. From a fire or
flood)
Resistance to disease
In a diverse environment, if one species is affected in some way, others not
affected can take its place.
• Farms with just one kind of crop (eg. Wheat) can be completely destroyed
by a disease or a pest
Removing dead matter

Bacteria in soil attack dead matter and break them down into simpler
substances (decomposition). These substances provide nutrients for plants.
Fishing
The fishing waters of Alaska contain a variety of species of salmon. This
diversity ensures that the fishing waters remain stable and healthy.
IMPORTANCE OF Stability of the atmosphere

Photosynthesis: green plants absorb carbon dioxide and give out oxygen that
BIODIVERSITY animals need for breathing

With many trees and forests, the supply of both gases in the atmosphere
remain stable.
REASONS FOR BECOMING ENDANGERED
Habitat loss
A habitat is the natural home of an organism.
Common cause of habitat loss: deforestation
Invasive species
An invasive species refers to organisms that do not normally live alongside
native species
Diseases
Diseases can kill plants and animals, causing them to become endangered
Hunting
People hunt and kill animals for food and their body parts. The over-hunting
LOSS OF
and over-fishing of animals can lead them to become endangered or extinct.
BIODIVERSITY
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MODELS:
Models of Cells
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
4 KEY CONCEPTS
• Show an understanding of the functions of different parts of a typical cell (including the nucleus)
• Recognise that in multicellular organisms (both plants and animals), cells are the basic building blocks that are organized
into tissues, organs, and systems
• Explain the significance of division of labour, even at the cellular level
• Discuss the reasons for the depletion or extinction of some plants or animals
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Infer whether an organism is an animal or a plant, based on its cellular composition
• Show an awareness of the moral and social issues related to organ donation/sale, and application of genetic science
KEY CONCEPT
Unicellular
Living things made up of
one cell
CELLS Eg. Amoeba
Cells are the basic units of an organism, and are also the Multicellular
Living things made up of
smallest parts of an organism that are alive. many cells
Eg. Human beings
ANIMAL CELLS
• Cytoplasm
• Jelly-like substance that fills the cell
• Contains water and other substances
• Site of chemical reactions
• Vacuoles
• Small spaces containing air, liquid, or food particles
• Many vacuoles present
• Nucleus
CELLS
• Controls activities within cell
• Contains chromosomes (made up of DNA)
• Cell membrane
• Thin layer around cell
• Partially permeable: allows some substances to pass through but not
others
PLANTS CELLS
• Cell wall
• Thick layer around cell
• Made up of cellulose
• Supports the cell and gives it a regular shape
• Vacuoles
• A single large space containing cell sap
• Contains water and dissolved substances (eg. sugar and salt)
• Keeps the cell firm by taking in water
• Chloroplasts (only in plant cells)
CELLS • Small disc-like structures found in the cells of green plants

• Contain chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from the sun and uses it
to make food
• Cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane

• Same as in animal cells
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
CELLS TISSUES ORGANS
• Different • Made up of • Made up of

cells have a group of different
different cells with tissues
roles similar working
• Example: structure together
guard cells and function • Example:
(plants), • Example: brain (made
nerve cells, nerve tissue up of nerve
fat cells (made up of tissue and
nerve cells), connective
connective tissue)
tissue
Different organs work together to make up a system.

Each system has one main function.
ORGANISATION Plants also have
OF CELLS systems, such as the

transport system.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
Definition: The act of dividing the work of an organism among different
cells
Advantages:
• The organism can perform more tasks (than unicellular organisms)
• It increases efficiency
• Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body and do not have
to involved in other tasks
• The cells can live longer
Examples of different jobs of cells:

• Nerve cells carry messages
• Red blood cells carry oxygen
DIVISION OF • Muscle cells for body movement

• Sperm cells for reproduction
LABOUR • Bone cells to support the body

KEY CONCEPT
MORAL &
SOCIAL ISSUES
ORGAN DONATION
Organ donation refers to the act of donating an organ and transplanting
it to another person legally.
People need to undergo organ transplants because their body organs

are diseased and cannot work properly. Receiving a healthy organ can
save their lives.
Common organs donated:

• Kidneys
• Liver
• Heart
• Lungs
GENETIC TESTING
Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain genes, which control how
cells in our body work.
Genes also control the features we inherit from our parents, such as eye
colour, height, and certain diseases.
Genetic testing allows doctors to find out if we have genes for certain
ORGAN DONATION & disorders, such as cancer, heart disease, and mental illness. With this
information, doctors may be able to treat us early.
GENETIC TESTING
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MODELS:
Particulate Nature of Matter
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
5 KEY CONCEPTS
• Show an awareness that according to the Particulate Nature of Matter, matter is made up of small discrete particles which
are in constant and random motion
• Show an understanding of the simple model of solids, liquids, and gases, in terms of arrangement and movement of
particles
• Use models to explain melting and boiling in terms of conversion of the three states of matter
• Duse models to explain expansion and contraction, and the conservation of mass during these processes
• Compare the properties of solids, liquids, and gases in terms of arrangement and movement of particles
KEY CONCEPT
MATTER
PARTICULATE THEORY
OF MATTER
There are
spaces The particles of
The particles between matter move.
are very small, particles in The particles
invisible, and (Particles move are in constant
matter at different
cannot be seen and random
without a (These spaces speeds in motion.
microscope are different in solids, liquids,
solids, liquids, and gases)
and gases)
• Particles are close together

Solid • Particles are arranged in a fixed, regular pattern
• Particles cannot move freely but constantly
vibrate in their fixed position
• Particles are close together but further apart

compared to those in solids
Liquid • Particles are not arranged in a fixed, regular
pattern
• Particles constantly move over short distances
PARTICULATE
and slide across each other
• Particles are far apart
THEORY OF MATTER
Gas • Particles occupy all the space of the container
• Particles constantly move freely and randomly in
all directions
PROPERTIES
• Have a definite • Have no definite • Have no definite

shape shape shape
• Have a definite • Have a definite • Have no definite
volume volume volume
• Cannot be • Cannot be • Can be
compressed compressed compressed
• Do not flow • Flow and take the • Flow and spread in
shape of the all directions to fill
container the container
SOLIDS
• Definite shape, cannot flow: particles cannot move freely and
can only vibrate about fixed positions
• Definite volume, cannot be compressed: particles packed
closely together and held in fixed positions
LIQUIDS
• No definite shape, can flow: particles are not in fixed positions
and can slide over one another
• Definite volume and cannot be compressed: particles packed
closely together (although not as close as those in solids)
PROPERTIES OF GASES
MATTER • No definite shape, can flow: particles are far apart and move
freely and randomly in all directions
• No definite volume and can be compressed: particles are far
apart with lots of empty space in between
When heated,
When cooled,
particles gain
particles lose
Cooled Heated energy and
energy and
move faster
move slower
and further
and closer to Particles away from
one another.
each other.
Hence, the
Hence, the
volume
volume
decreases.
increases.
During expansion and contraction, only the distance between particles

change. The size and mass of particles do not change.
CHANGES OF STATE
Solid (Ice) Liquid (water) Gas (steam)
• Particles • Particles are • Particles are

close further far apart
together apart and and move
CHANGES OF and only

vibrate in
their fixed
can move
about over
short
very fast
and
randomly
STATE positions distances

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MODELS:
Atoms & Molecules
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
5 KEY CONCEPTS
• Describe an atom as an electrically neutral entity made up of a positively charged nucleus (protons and neutrons) with
negatively charged electrons moving around the nucleus
• Compare the relative size of an atom to other objects
• Show an awareness that atoms of an element have a unique number of protons
• Recognise that atoms have mass that is contributed by the mass of the nucleus
• Show an understanding that a molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined together
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Compare atoms and molecules
• State the number and types of atoms, given the chemical formula of a compound
KEY CONCEPT
ATOMS &
MOLECULES
ATOMS
Definition: An atom is the smallest unit of an element
Representation of atoms
Small Circles (w
Symbol
spheres symbol)
Hydrogen H H
Hydrogen
MOLECULES
Definition: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically joined
together
Representation of molecules
We use the chemical formula of molecules instead of just symbols
• The chemical formula of a molecule shows the number and types of
atoms contained in it
Non-metal element Compound

Chemical formula for a molecule of Chemical formula for a molecule of
chlorine is Cl2 water is H2O
ATOMS & Cl2 H2O
MOLECULES • Cl is the symbol of a chlorine atom

• 2 tells us that there are 2 chlorine
atoms in a chlorine molecule
• Water is made up of H (hydrogen)
and O (oxygen)
• 2 tells us that there are 2 hydrogen
atoms in a water molecule
MODEL OF AN ATOM
Proton
• Positive charge
• Relative mass: 1
Neutron
• Same mass as proton
• No charge (neutral)
Electron
• Negative charge
The nucleus of an atom contains • Relative mass: 1/1836 of
protons & neutrons (equal number) proton/neutron mass
Differences between atoms
COMPOSITION OF Proton (atomic) number
ATOMS The proton number of an element refers to the number of protons

that atom has.
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MODELS:
Ray of Light
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
7 KEY CONCEPTS
• Show an understanding that the ray model represents the path taken by light
• Recognise that light travels in straight lines, forming shadows when blocked
• Explain how reflection is affected by smooth and rough surfaces using the ray model of light
• Predict the characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror using the ray model of light
• Describe the effects and uses of reflecting surfaces (eg. plane and curved)
• Describe some effects of refraction
• Describe the dispersion of white light by a prism using the ray model of light
3 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Show an understanding that the change in the speed of light in different media causes refraction
• Explain how we see the colour of objects in white light and coloured light such as red, blue, and green
• Investigate the effects of refraction in practical activities and make inferences through observations in everyday life
KEY CONCEPT
LIGHT
Luminous objects produce light, and are sources of light (sun, stars, fire, etc.)
Non-luminous objects do not produce light, and are not sources of light (tree, book, etc.)
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light travels in straight lines.
• Hence, a ray of light is represented by a straight line with an
arrow to indicate its direction (ray model of light)
When light is blocked, shadows are formed.

• The area behind the object that receives no light is the shadow
REFLECTION
Definition: the bounding of light off a mirror
• Incident ray: ray of light

travelling towards the mirror
• Reflected ray: ray of light

travelling away from the mirror
• Normal: Imaginary line at right

angles to the mirror
PROPERTIES
• Angle of incidence: angle
between normal and incident ray
OF LIGHT
• Angle of reflection: angle
between normal and reflected
ray
Regular reflection
• Occurs when parallel rays of light hit a smooth surface such as a

plane mirror -> reflected as parallel rays
• Image is clear and undistorted
Diffuse reflection
• Occurs when parallel rays of light hit a rough surface such as

frosted glass or rough paper -> reflected off the surface at different
angles
• Rough surfaces have many different angles of incidence
• Image is distorted
TYPES OF
REFLECTIONS
PLANE MIRRORS
Properties
• The image formed is always a virtual image
• The image is laterally inverted
Uses of plane mirrors

• Rearview mirror inside a car helps the driver see traffic behind the car
• A plane mirror on a wall makes a room look bigger
CURVED MIRRORS
Convex mirrors
• Form upright images that are always smaller than the
objects
• Have a large ‘field of view’ to see many things
Concave mirrors
MIRRORS • Form upright magnified images if the objects are close

to the mirrors
REFRACTION
Definition: Refraction refers to the bending (change in direction) of light as it
passes from one transparent material to another of a different optical
density.
This is because its speed changes as it travels from one transparent material
into another. Light travels slower in materials that are optically denser.
As light travels from air into glass, it slows down and bends towards the
normal.
REFRACTION
Examples of refraction
• Swimming pool appears shallower than it actually is
• Straws appear to ‘bend’ towards the surface of water
KEY CONCEPT
COLOURS
Dispersion
Definition: separation or splitting of white light into its separate colours
Occurs when a beam of white light travels through the glass prism.
When light shines on a coloured object, some of the colours in the spectrum
are reflected and some are absorbed.
• White objects: reflected all the colours and absorbed none

• Black objects: absorbed all the colours
• Blue objects: reflected blue light and absorbed all the other colours
Coloured light
Example: using a green apple under green light and red light
COLOURS Green light: Green apple appears green because it reflects the green light
Red light: Green apple appears black because it absorbs the red light
KEY CONCEPT
IMPACTS OF
LIGHT ON SOCIETY
Benefits of lighting
• Electric lamps light up our homes at night
• Streetlights help car drivers to see at night
• Lights help us to decorate our surroundings
Negative effects of lighting

Light pollution refers to the presence of artificial light in the night
environment.
Effects
• Advertising signs (used unnecessarily late at night) cause light pollution
and contribute to energy wastage
• Artificial lights may cause tiredness, headaches and sleeplessness in
people who work at night
BENEFITS &
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
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SYSTEMS:
Transport System in
Living Things
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
6 KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms
• Identify the parts of the human circulatory system and their respective functions
• State how diffusion facilitates the transport of substances in animals
• Show an awareness of how the various parts of the plant transport system work together to transport useful substances
within the plant
• State how diffusion facilitates the transport of substances in plants
• State how osmosis facilitates the absorption of water at the roots
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Infer from investigations that particles move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
KEY CONCEPT
HUMAN
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Circulatory System
Heart Blood Blood vessels
Role of the heart

• The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body
• The heart contains blood vessels which carry blood
Role of blood
• Blood carries substances to and from cells in the body
• Nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide
• Blood contains red blood cells suspended in a pale yellow liquid called
plasma
Red blood cells Plasma
HUMAN •
•
No nucleus
Contains haemoglobin which
• Made up of water and
dissolved substances including
TRANSPORT
binds to oxygen to carry it nutrients (glucose, amino
around the body acids, fatty acids) and waste
• Bright red when carrying substances
SYSTEM
oxygen
Blood vessels
Arteries Veins
Carry blood away from Carry blood towards

the heart the heart
• Blood is pumped from the heart to the

lungs to remove CO2 and obtain O2
• Blood returning from the lungs is
pumped to the rest of the body to
provide O2 to cells
• Arteries branch into networks of smaller
vessels (capillaries) which lie close to
cells. Food and oxygen pass from
capillaries into cells and waste products
are passed from cells into capillaries
BLOOD VESSELS • Capillaries join together to form veins,

which carry blood back to the heart and
lungs
KEY CONCEPT
PLANT
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Transport System Vessels
Xylem Phloem
Carry water and dissolved Carry food (sugars) produced

minerals from roots to all parts during photosynthesis from
of the plant leaves to rest of the plant
• The xylem and phloem run side by side forming bundles called
PLANT
vascular bundles
TRANSPORT
SYSTEM
KEY CONCEPT
MODE OF TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION
Definition: Diffusion is the overall movement of molecules from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Diffusion through a membrane

Membranes have pores that allow small molecules to pass through, but not
large molecules.
These are called partially permeable membranes.
OSMOSIS
Definition: Osmosis is the overall movement of water molecules from a region
of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration through
a partially permeable membrane.
DIFFUSION &
OSMOSIS
IN THE HUMAN BODY

Diffusion
• Small molecules of food diffuse through the walls of the small intestine into
the bloodstream
• Oxygen from the air in the lungs diffuses into the bloodstream
• Oxygen moves out of red blood cells and diffuses from blood into cells
(through cell membranes)
• Waste products produced in cells diffuse out from cells into the bloodstream
IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the air into cells of the leaves
• Oxygen produced diffuses from cells in the leaves into the air
Absorption of water and minerals

• Water enters root hair cells via osmosis (concentration of water in the soil is
IMPORTANCE
higher than in the cell sap of the root hair cells)
• Dissolved minerals diffuse into root hair cells (when concentration of minerals
in the soil is higher than in root hair cells)
DARRELL ER (COPYRIGHTED) ©
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SYSTEMS:
Human Digestive System
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
3 KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain the importance of the digestive system
• Identify the main parts of a digestive system and how they work together to perform a function
• Describe how the digestive system helps in digestion of food and the part played by enzymes in digestion
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Infer that the end products of digestion are used for cellular processes like respiration, growth and tissue repair
• Show an awareness of the importance of hygiene habits and food handling practices in preventing food-borne diseases
KEY CONCEPT
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Our body needs substances in food to live, such as carbohydrates,

proteins, and fats.
Nutrients Why we need them Sources
Carbohydrates • Provide our body with • Starch: rice, bread,

energy cereals
• Sugars (glucose,
sucrose): ripe fruit,
sweets & soft
drinks
Proteins • Used for growth and • Animal protein:
repair of damaged fish, meat, egg,
tissues in our body cheese
• Provide energy when • Plant protein: soya
there are insufficient beans, nuts
carbohydrates and fats
Fats • Provide our body with • Butter

energy • Margarine
• Keep our body warm • Cooking oil
NEED FOR EATING

Nutrients in food (eg. Starch, proteins and fats) are large molecules that are
too big to pass through the cell membranes of cells. They need to be
broken down into smaller molecules in a process called digestion.
& DIGESTION Definition: Digestion is the breaking down of large food molecules into
smaller molecules in the body.
ORGANS
The digestive system is made up of a long continuous tube called the

alimentary canal. Food enters through the mouth and waste substances exit
through the anus as feces.
ENZYMES
Enzymes produced by the body help to break down large molecules into
smaller molecules, and speed up the process of digestion.
Class of enzyme Action
Carbohydrase Large carbohydrate molecule -> simple
DIGESTION
sugars
Protease Large protein molecule -> amino acids
Lipase Large molecule of fat -> glycerol & fatty

acids
KEY CONCEPT
ROLES OF ORGANS
Mouth
• Action of chewing grinds food into smaller pieces
• Increases surface area of food which allows it to be digested faster
• Carbohydrase (enzyme) in saliva breaks down starch into maltose
• No digestion of proteins and fats
Stomach
• Gastric juice produced mixes with the food
• Complex proteins are broken down by proteases (enzyme)
• No digestion of carbohydrates or fats
Small intestine
• Process of digestion is completed here
• (Carbohydrase) Maltose -> glucose
• (Protease) Simple proteins -> amino acids
• (Lipase) Molecule of fat -> glycerol & fatty acids
• Digested food diffuses through the walls of the small intestine into the
blood vessels around it (absorption)
Large intestine
ORGANS • Contains food that cannot be digested

• Water removed and taken back into the body
• Undigested food passes out of the body through the anus as feces
KEY CONCEPT
REMOVAL OF WASTE
EXCESS AMINO ACIDS FROM

CARBON DIOXIDE FROM
DIGESTION
RESPIRATION
Excess amino acids are formed from
Cells carry out respiration to release
excess protein. These amino acids
energy from food and produce
are broken down into smaller
carbon dioxide as a waste product
molecules
Waste
CO2 passed
molecules
to the
passed to the
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The waste molecules are carried to
REMOVAL OF
Carbon dioxide is carried to the
the kidneys and removed from the
lungs and removed from the body
body through the urine
WASTE
KEY CONCEPT
FOOD-BORNE DISEASES
Food-borne diseases are caused by consuming contaminated food or drinks.

Bacteria are the most common causes of food-borne diseases.
Symptoms
• Diarrhoea
• Fever
• Vomiting
• Stomach cramps
• Dehydration
Prevention
• Good hygiene habits
• Wash raw fruits and vegetables before eating them
• Wash your hands thoroughly before and after handling raw food
• Refrigerate food
• Cook food thoroughly
FOOD-BORNE • Cover food with a food cover or plastic wrap
DISEASES

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SYSTEMS:
Human Sexual
Reproductive System
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
8 KEY CONCEPTS
• Recognise that the sexual reproductive system facilitates heredity, the union of the nuclei of an egg and a sperm forms a
new individual
• Recognise that a new individual formed through sexual reproduction receives a unique combination of genetic information
from its mother and its father resulting in variation between individuals
• State some of the physical changes that occur during puberty and early adolescence as a result of the effect on hormones
on other systems
• Describe briefly the structures of human male and female reproductive systems and how they work together for fertilization
to take place
• Describe how each part of the female reproductive system is crucial to the menstrual cycle
• Outline how temporary and permanent birth control methods prevent conception
• State the harmful consequences of infections that are transmitted through the sexual reproductive system
• State that some bacterial STIs can be cured by antibiotics, but not viral STIs
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Evaluate the consequences and issues relating to abortion and premarital sex
• Suggest reasons for the world’s growing human population

Asexual reproduction
• Production of new organisms from a single
parent
KEY CONCEPT
• Occurs in unicellular organisms (eg.
Amoeba)
REPRODUCTION Sexual reproduction

• Requires two parents (male and female) and
involves sex cells
The two methods of reproduction in living things are • Offspring inherits characteristics from both
asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. parents
• Occurs in multicellular organisms (eg.
Humans)
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Sex glands (seminal vesicle)

• Produce fluids in which the sperms swim (mixture of fluid and sperms is
called semen)
Sperm duct
• Carries sperm from the testis to the penis
Urethra
• Tube that carries sperms and urine (at different times)
MALE Scrotum
• Bag of skin that holds the testes outside the body
REPRODUCTIVE Penis
• Organ from which sperm-carrying fluid leaves the body
SYSTEM Testes
• Produces male sex cells (sperm)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovary
• Produce eggs (ova); the female sex cell
Oviduct (fallopian tube)

• Tube that carries ova released from the ovary to the uterus
Uterus
• Pear-shaped structure where an embryo grows and develops
FEMALE Cervix
• Narrow opening of the uterus; widens during the birth of a baby
REPRODUCTIVE Vagina
• Tube which links the uterus to the outside of the body
SYSTEM
• Where sperms are deposited
• Passage through which a baby is born
FERTILISATION
During sexual intercourse, the erect male penis is inserted

into the vagina of the female. Sperms are released and
deposited in the vagina
The sperms swim up the uterus to the oviducts
The sperms may meet an ovum coming down one of the

oviducts. One sperm may fertilise the ovum
The head of the sperm enters the ovum
During fertilisation, the nucleus in the head of the sperm

fuses with the nucleus in the ovum. The two nuclei form a
fertilised ovum (zygote). All the other sperms die eventually
FERTILISATION If there is no ovum in the oviduct, no fertilization takes place.

KEY CONCEPT
HEREDITY
HEREDITY
Definition: The process of passing genetic material from one generation to

the next
During the process of fertilization, 23 single chromosomes from the ovum

fuses with 23 single chromosomes from the sperm to form 23 PAIRS of
chromosomes. Therefore, a child receives half of its genetic information
from each parent.
Each one of us receives a combination of genes that is different from

everybody else, leading to variation between people.
Heritable traits
• Hair colour
• Eye colour
• Ears (detached lobes or attached lobes)
• Skin colour
• Chin shape (squarish or pointed)
HEREDITY
KEY CONCEPT
PUBERTY
PUBERTY
Definition: Puberty is a period of rapid growth and development, during
which a person changes to become sexually mature and capable of
reproduction
Physical changes
These are caused by sex hormones produced in reproductive organs.
Physical changes in boys Physical changes in girls

• Reproductive organs grow • Ovaries start to release ova
larger and start to produce • Height increases rapidly
sperms • Breasts grow larger and hips
• Body grows rapidly; height can become rounder and wider
increase rapidly in a short time • Hair grows in armpits and
• Hair grows on the face and around reproductive organs
body • Menstruation begins
• Voice box enlarges and voice
deepens
Menstrual cycle
• Menstruation: discharge of blood and dead tissue from the uterine lining
through the vagina
• Ovulation: release of a mature ovum from an ovary
PUBERTY
KEY CONCEPT
FAMILY PLANNING
TEMPORARY BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

Natural means
• Rhythm method: Couples can refrain from sexual intercourse during a
woman’s fertile period (when ovulation occurs)
• Abstinence: The act of not having sexual intercourse at all
Artificial means
This involves the use of chemicals or mechanical devices to prevent
pregnancies.
1. Disrupting processes
1. Stopping the sperms from entering the vagina or uterus
2. Stopping ovulation
2. Disrupting functions
1. Killing sperms
Examples:
• Condoms
• Intra-uterine device (IUD)
• Birth control pills
PERMANENT BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

Male sterilization
• The sperm ducts in a man are cut and tied - no sperms can be released
BIRTH CONTROL through the penis
Female sterilization
METHODS • The oviducts in a woman are cut and tied – the ova will not be able to
reach the uterus
KEY CONCEPT
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
INFECTIONS
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs)

Gonorrhoea
• Caused by a bacterium
• Symptoms:
• Burning sensation when passing urine
• Thick liquid (pus) discharged from penis or vagina
• Can be treated with antibiotics
Syphilis
• Caused by a bacterium
• Symptoms:
• Early stages: sores on mouth and reproductive organs, non-itchy
skin rashes
• Late stages: deformed joints, abnormal teeth, blindness, serious
heart and brain problems
• Can be treated with antibiotics
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

• Caused by a virus (HIV)
• Virus attacks white blood cells which help the body to fight
infections -> body becomes weak and susceptible to infections
SEXUALLY PREVENTION OF STIs
TRANSMITTED • Use a condom during sexual intercourse

• Avoid casual sex
• Avoid drug abuse and sharing needs (may be contaminated)
INFECTIONS

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SYSTEMS:
Electrical Systems
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
8 KEY CONCEPTS
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams and set up circuits containing electrical sources, switches, lamps, resistors, ammeters,
voltmeters
• Explain what is meant by current, potential difference and resistance of an electrical system, and state their units
• Explain how the series or parallel arrangement of components in an electrical system affects the outputs of the system
• Investigate the effect of varying resistance on the current in the circuit using fixed or variable resistors
• Explain qualitatively the chemical, heating, and magnetic effects of an electric current and list some applications
• Explain what is meant by power and state its SI unit
• State how damage to an electrical system can cause some electrical hazards
• State some precautionary measures to ensure the safe use of electricity in the home
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Solve simple problems on the cost of using electrical appliances, using kilowatt-hour as a unit of electrical energy
consumption
KEY CONCEPT
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Electricity flows in a circuit when there is:
• A source of electrical energy
• A closed circuit
Representation
Symbols
ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
Definition: The flow of electrons in one direction in a circuit (flow of electricity)
• Conventional current flows from +ve to –ve

• Electron flow in a circuit flows fom –ve to +ve
Measurement
Instrument: Ammeter
SI unit: Ampere (A)
Ammeters are only connected in series in a circuit
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Definition: The potential difference (p.d) between two points is a measure of the
amount of potential energy that is changed into other forms of energy when a
unit change passes between these two points
Measurement
Instrument: Voltmeter
SI unit: Volt (V)
Voltmeters are only connected in parallel in a circuit
CURRENT &
POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
RESISTANCE
Definition: Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in
an electrical circuit
The greater the resistance in a circuit, the lower the current.
SI unit: ohm (Ω)
Resistors
Resistors are used to control the amount of current in a circuit.
Fixed resistors Variable resistors (rheostat)

• Has fixed resistance • Used to vary resistance in a
circuit
• As resistance increases, current
decreases (vice versa)
Uses of rheostats
• Light dimmers
• Volume control on a music player
RESISTANCE • Speed control of a model train

KEY CONCEPT
ARRANGEMENT OF CIRCUITS
Circuits can either be arranged in series or parallel arrangement.
Series circuit Parallel circuit
• The current that flows through • The current from the battery
each of the components is the divides and flows through each
same branch
• If one bulb is removed/broken, no • If one bulb is removed/broken,
current flows (circuit is open) the other bulbs remain lit (circuit
is closed)
Resistors in series and parallel
If two or more resistors are joined in series, the total resistance is the sum
of the individual resistance of each resistor.
Since the higher the resistance the lower the current, the bulb is dimmer
If two or more resistors are joined in parallel, the total resistance is less
SERIES &
than the resistance of the individual resistors.
Since the lower the resistance the higher the current, the bulb is brighter
PARALLEL
KEY CONCEPT
EFFECTS OF AN
ELECTRIC CURRENT
HEATING EFFECT
Electrical energy -> heat energy
For the same amount of current, the greater the resistance of the wire, the
greater the amount of heat produced.
Applications
• Copper wires have low resistance -> does not get very hot
• Used as connecting wires
• Nichrome wires have high resistance -> get very hot
• Used as a heating element in kettles
MAGNETIC EFFECT
A coil of wire wound around a piece of iron is called an electromagnet. When
a current flows through the coil, the coil acts like a bar magnet.
Applications
• Magnetic cranes to lift iron and steel objects
• Electric bells (fire bells)
• Electric motors in trains and vacuum cleaners
CHEMICAL EFFECT
The decomposition of a compound by an electric current is called electrolysis,
which are important in electroplating and extraction of metals.
Electroplating
In electroplating, a metallic object is covered with a thin layer of another
EFFECTS
metal (eg. Gold plating)
Extraction of metals
Reactive metals like sodium and aluminum are obtained by electrolysis
KEY CONCEPT
POWER
POWER
Definition: The power of an electrical appliance is the amount of electrical
current it converts to other forms of energy in one second
SI unit: Watt (W)
Cost of using energy
SI unit: joule (J)

• A larger unit of kilowatt-hour (kWh) is used to measure energy use in
home appliances
Energy consumed (kWh) = Power (kW) x Time (hours)
Example: Calculate how much energy an air conditioner that has a power
rating of 1000W consumes in 6 hours
Power = 1000W = 1kW

Time = 6 hr
POWER Energy consumed = 1kW x 6hr = 6kWh (answer)

KEY CONCEPT
SAFETY
Electrical dangers
Frayed and • When the insulation around a wire is damaged or worn out
damaged • Dangerous if a person touches a bare wire (current flows
wires through the body resulting in electric shock)
Wet • Water is an electrical conductor
conditions • Touching a damaged wire or appliance with wet hands can
result in electric shock
Overloading • Occurs when many appliances are connected to the mains
socket via an electrical adaptor
• A large current flows in the house wiring, causing the wires
to become hot
• If the current is too large, it can cause a fire in the house
wiring or adaptor
Short • A short circuit is a path of very low resistance between two
circuits points in a circuit
• Occurs when a broken or bare wire touches another wire in
the circuit
• Results in a large current flowing through the circuit, causing
wires to become hot
• May cause a fire in the wires/appliance
Safety precautions
• Never overload a circuit
• Do not use electrical appliances with old or frayed wires
SAFETY • Never use electrical appliances in wet places

• Do not push anything into sockets or electrical appliances
• Call an electrician rather than trying to fix things yourself

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INTERACTIONS:
Forces
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
7 KEY CONCEPTS
• State that forces can (a) change the state of rest or motion of a body, (b) change the size and/or shape of a body, © bring
about turning effects in objects, (d) exert pressure on objects
• Identify some examples of contact forces and non-contact forces and predict their effects on an object
• Solve problems of objects in motion using the concept of speed
• Make measurements of mass and force, using their respective SI units
• Compare mass and weight
• Relate pressure to force and area, using appropriate everyday examples
• Investigate pressure using its formula
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Show an appreciation of some daily life phenomena associated with atmospheric pressure and pressure due to liquid
KEY CONCEPT
FORCES
FORCES
Whenever we push or pull an object, we are said to exert a force.
Effects of forces
• Start an object moving
• Stop a moving object
• Change the speed of a moving object
• Change the direction of a moving object
• Change the size and shape of an object
Measurement of forces
Instrument: force-meters (eg. Spring balances)
SI unit: newton (N)
SPEED
Definition: Speed is a measure of how fast someone or something moves.
Distance
Speed =
Time
FORCES SI unit: metre per second (m/s)

Forces
Contact forces Non-contact forces

(A force that acts when (A force that acts at a
objects touch) distance from an object)
Friction Magnetism
Gravity
FRICTION
• Friction acts whenever one surface rubs against another surface.
• The surfaces may be solids, liquids, or gases.
• Friction causes surfaces to heat up.
Friction always opposes the movement of an object.
KINDS Ways to reduce friction

• Use smooth surfaces (lanes in bowling alleys)
OF FORCES • Use ball bearings (used in moving parts of machines)

• Lubrication (like grease and oil)
• Streamlining (eg. Shape of an aircraft)
MAGNETISM
• Magnets exert a force called magnetism
• Magnetism is a non-contact force
• Like poles repel, unlike poles attract
GRAVITY
• Gravity is the force that pulls objects towards the earth
• Gravity exists between any two objects with mass
• Gravity is a non-contact force
Weight
Definition: Weight is a measure of the force of gravity exerted on an object
The heavier an object, the greater the force acting on it

Unit of weight: newton
Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
Measure of the amount of matter Measure of the force of gravity

in an object exerted on an object
KINDS SI unit = kg SI unit.= newton
OF FORCES
KEY CONCEPT
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
Definition: Pressure is the measure of the amount of force acting on a unit area
Force
Pressure =
Area
SI unit: pascal (Pa)
Pressure in liquids and gases

Liquids: the deeper you go, the higher the water pressure
Gases: the higher you go (atmosphere), the lower the air pressure
Examples (change in air pressure)

Squishing a drink box
• Air pressure inside the box is initially equal to outside the box
• Sucking on the straw removes some air from within the box
• Air pressure outside is greater than air pressure inside
• Greater pressure outside squashes the box
Holding a suction cup on the wall

• When we push a suction cup against a wall, air is pushed out from under the
PRESSURE
cup
• Air pressure under the cup decreases
• The higher air pressure outside the cup holds it on the wall
KEY CONCEPT
DESTRUCTIVE FORCES
OF NATURE
Earthquakes
• The surface of the earth (crust) is made up of many plates that are
continually moving
• Where plates meet, they push against each other with great force
• Sometimes this force is released and plates move suddenly -> earthquake
Tsunamis
• A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves, often caused by a powerful
earthquake under the ocean
Volcanoes
• Magma exists underneath the earth’s crust
• Magma exerts a force on the earth’s crust – when the pressure becomes
too great, the magma is forced upwards to the surface through a volcano
(hole in earth’s surface)
Typhoons
DESTRUCTIVE
• A typhoon is a powerful storm with strong winds and heavy rain
• The rain and force of wind can damage property and cause floods
FORCES

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INTERACTIONS:
Energy & Work Done
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
6 KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify energy as the ability to do work
• Show understanding that work is done when an object moves in the same direction as the force applied
• Show understanding that energy is transferred when work is done
• Show an awareness that energy is conserved when it is converted from one form to another
• Know the SI unit for energy and work
• Infer that energy can be transformed from one form to another
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Compare between situations involving forces where work is done and where work is not done
• Show an appreciation of the uses of various sources of energy and their impact on the environment
KEY CONCEPT
ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work.
Living things need energy for processes that keep them alive.
Non-living things need energy to work.
WORK
Definition: Work is the use of a force to move an object in the direction of
the force
Conditions for work to be done:

• There is a force acting on an object
• The object moves
• The object moves in the direction of the force
How much work is done depends on:

• The size of the force applied
• The distance moved by the object in the direction of the force
SI unit: joule (J)
RELATION BETWEEN ENERGY & WORK

When work is done, energy is transferred from one thing to another.
The more work we do, the more energy is transferred.
Work done = Energy transferred
Energy conservation
During an energy transfer, we cannot gain or lose energy. We can only

change it from one form to another. This is referred to as conservation of
energy.
WORK The total amount of energy before and after the change is exactly the
same. This means that the amount of energy has been conserved.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
The main sources of energy today are coal, oil, and natural gas (fossil
fuels). They were formed from the remnants of dead plants and animals
that lived millions of years ago
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy – once used up, they are
gone forever.
Renewable sources of energy
Hydroelectricity • Electricity produced from moving water

• Water from behind a dam flows down pipes and turns
water turbines, that turn generators that change
kinetic energy into electrical energy
Solar energy • Energy from the sun (heat & light)
• Solar energy is used to heat water, cook, and generate
electricity
Wind energy • Wind turbines use kinetic energy of the wind to
generate electricity
Tidal energy • The difference in height of water at high tide and low
tide is used to generate electricity
SOURCES OF
Geothermal • Hot water and steam from inside of the earth escapes
energy through geysers and hot springs
• The steam is used to generate electricity in geothermal
ENERGY
power stations
Biomass • Biomass refers to plant and animal material
• Biomass can be used to produce biofuels
KEY CONCEPT
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ENERGY SOURCES
Air pollution
• Burning of fossil fuels produces gases like carbon monoxide and soot
(carbon) particles that are harmful to human health
• Biofuels cause air pollution when they are burnt, though much less than
fossil fuels
Impact on land and living things

• Construction of hydroelectric dams often forces people and animals near
the dam site to move to another place
• Forests are often cleared to grow crops to produce biofuels (deforestation).
This can later lead to problems like soil erosion and contribute to global
warming
• Wind turbines contribute to noise pollution and sometimes the death of
birds
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS

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INTERACTIONS:
Sound
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
6 KEY CONCEPTS
• Explain that sounds are produced due to interactions between molecules of a medium caused by a vibrating source
• Recognise that sound transfers energy and that it takes different lengths of time to travel from one point to another
through different media
• Outline how the ear detects sounds in terms of the vibration of the eardrum and ear bones, and the subsequent
interpretation of sound by the brain
• Identify sounds of different pitch and relate the pitch to their frequencies
• Infer that the pitch can be changed by changed the frequency
• Infer that the loudness of sounds can be changed by changing the size of vibrations
KEY CONCEPT
SOUNDS
SOUND
Sounds are produced by vibrations, and the number of vibrations in one
second is called frequency.
Measurement of frequency: hertz (Hz)
Sound can travel through:

• Solids
• Liquids
Sound cannot travel through:

• Vacuum
Sound travels in the form of waves. The waves are formed from vibrating
air molecules, which collide with neighbouring molecules and cause them
to vibrate (and so on).
Detection of sound
• Outer ear: collects sound waves
and directs them to the
eardrum
• Middle ear: contains three

small bones which magnify the
vibrations and pass them on to
the inner ear
• Inner ear: nerve cells in the
SOUNDS
inner ear detect the vibrations
and change them into electrical
signals. The nerves carry these
signals to the brain
Range of hearing
The human ear can only detect sounds from 20Hz to 20 000 Hz.
This is defined as our range of hearing.
Relation between frequency and pitch

• Notes with a low pitch have a low frequency.
• Notes with a high pitch have a high frequency.
RANGE OF Loud & Soft sounds
HEARING
Loudness depends on the size of the vibrations. The larger the vibrations,
the louder the sounds.
KEY CONCEPT
IMPORTANCE & EFFECTS

IMPORTANCE OF SOUND IN SOCIETY

Communication
• A baby crying to get the attention of his/her parents
Warning signals
• The siren of an ambulance, fire engine or police vehicle tells other drivers
to give way to them on the road
Pleasure
• Music gives people pleasure and relax
Healthcare
• Ultrasound is often used in medicine to look at a fetus and detect
abnormalities in our bodies
EFFECTS OF NOISE
The loudness of a sound is measured in decibels (dB) using a decibel meter.
Noise pollution
Main sources: traffic noise and noise from construction sites
Effects
• Affects human health: noise pollution can cause problems such as
indigestion or heart disease
IMPORTANCE & • Decrease work performance: loud noises make it more difficult to
concentrate while working or studying
EFFECTS

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INTERACTIONS:
Heat
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
6 KEY CONCEPTS
• Infer that generally solids, liquids, and gases expand when heat is absorbed and contract when heat is given out
• Infer that thermal expansion results in. a change in volume and density of a substance
• Describe some effects and applications of expansion and contraction in everyday life
• State the SI unit of temperature
• Explain what is meant by conduction, convection, and radiation
• Show an understanding that the rate of heat loss or gain by a body through radiation is affected by the (i) nature of its
surface and (ii) temperature difference between the body and its surroundings
2 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Identify and explain applications of heat conduction, heat convection and heat radiation
• Infer from experiments that different materials have different rates of heat flow
KEY CONCEPT
HEAT
HEAT
Expansion: the increase in size of objects when heated
Contraction: the decrease in size of objects when cooled
Measurement of temperature
Instrument: thermometer
SI unit: kelvin (K)
Bimetallic strips
• Made up of 2 different metal strips (eg. Brass and steel)
• When heated or cooled, the flat strip bends because one metal expands
or contracts more than the other
• Used in bimetallic thermometers and thermostats
Expansion & Contraction in daily life

• Steel MRT tracks have small gaps to allow for expansion during hot
EFFECTS OF HEAT
weather
• Bridges have expansion gaps or rollers to allow for movement
KEY CONCEPT
CONDUCTION, CONVECTION,
& RADIATION
CONDUCTION
Definition: Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material without the
obvious movement of the medium itself
Good conductors Poor conductors

Metals (eg. Aluminium, steel, Liquids, gases, some solids
iron) (wood, plastic, glass)
Uses
• The bottom of an iron is made of steel (good conductor) to conduct heat
to clothes
• Oven gloves contain trapped air (poor conductor) so that heat cannot
conduct easily through to reach our hands
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
Definition: Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another by
the movement of the medium itself
Heat is transferred through liquids and gases (poor conductors of heat)

mainly through convection.
Liquids
• When water is heated, the water

molecules move faster and spread
further apart. The volume of water
increases, causing its density to
decrease
• The hot, less dense water rises
while the cooler, denser water sinks
The moving water forms a current called a convection current which transfers
heat around the beaker.
Gases
• Air above the candle flame gets

hot, becomes less dense and rises
• Cooler air sinks into the box
through the other chimney to
replace the escaping hot air
CONVECTION Convection in daily life

• Electric kettles
• Air conditioners
RADIATION
Definition: Radiation is the transfer of heat without the need for a medium
(ie. A solid, liquid, or gas)
Objects warmer than their surroundings (like the sun, fires, gas flames) give
out heat as radiation.
Features Good Poor Good Poor

absorbers absorbers radiators radiators
Appearance Black, dull White, shiny Black, dull White, shiny
of surface
Type of Rough Smooth Rough Smooth
surface
Factors for rate of heat gain/loss

• Nature of the surface
• The darker or rougher the surface, the more heat gained or lost per
second
• Surface area
• The greater the surface area of a body, the more heat gained or lost
per second
• Temperature of the body
• The greater the temperature difference between the body and its
surroundings, the more heat gained or lost per second
Applications
RADIATION • White clothes absorb less radiation from the sun and keep us cool
• The shiny surface of an electric kettle is a poor radiator of heat – water
inside the kettle stays hot for a longer time

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DIVERSITY:
Chemical Changes
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
7 KEY CONCEPTS
• Identify a change which leads to formation of new product(s) as a chemical change
• Show an awareness that there are different types of chemical reactions such as combustion, thermal decomposition,
oxidation and neutralization
• Use word equations to represent chemical reactions
• Investigate the changes that matter undergoes through mixing, heating, exposure to light, passing of an electric current,
oxidation
• Show an awareness that chemical reactions involve a rearrangement of atoms, which are not created or destroyed
• Infer that mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
• Investigate the effect of acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions on indicators and reactions between acids and metals, acids
and carbonates, acids and alkalis
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Show an awareness of how chemical reactions can benefit our lives and cause harm to our health and environment
KEY CONCEPT
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL

CHANGES
PHYSICAL CHANGES
Definition: A physical change is a change in which no new substance is
formed
Physical changes can be reversed.
Example: water changing into steam when it boils (the change can be
reversed with cooling)
CHEMICAL CHANGES
Definition: A chemical change is a change in which a new substance is
formed
Chemical reactions are difficult to reverse.
Representation of chemical reactions
conditions
heat
Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide
PHYSICAL & reactants Product(s)
CHEMICAL CHANGES
KEY CONCEPT
INTERACTIONS
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION
In thermal decomposition, a single substance breaks up into two or more
simpler substances when it is heated.
Example:
heat
Sugar Carbon + water vapour
COMBUSTION
In combustion, a substance reacts with oxygen when heated to form one or
more new substance
Example:
Carbon + oxygen Carbon dioxide + heat
Combustion reactions include burning of fuels such as coal, natural gas and
petrol.
OXIDATION
Oxidation refers to the addition of oxygen to a substance.
MATTER & HEAT

Example:
Iron + oxygen Iron oxide (rust)
INTERACTIONS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use light energy to make
food.
Equation:
Light energy
Carbon dioxide + water Oxygen + glucose
PHOTOGRAPHY
The coating on black and white photographic film contains silver bromide.
Exposure to light decomposes the silver bromide into silver, which produces
the dark areas on film.
Equation:
Light
Silver bromide Silver (grey solid) + bromide
MATTER & ELECTRICITY INTERACTIONS

Matter can also react with electricity in reactions such as electrolysis.
MATTER & LIGHT

Electrolysis is used in the process of electroplating.
(Refer to Electrical Systems chapter for more information).
INTERACTIONS
KEY CONCEPT
MIXING OF SUBSTANCES
ACIDS & METALS

When dilute acids are mixed with certain metals, hydrogen gas and a salt
are produced.
Example
salt
Hydrochloric acid + magnesium Magnesium chloride +
hydrogen gas
acid metal
gas
ACIDS & CARBONATES

When dilute acids are mixed with carbonates, carbon dioxide gas, a salt and
water are produced.
Example
salt
Hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate Calcium chloride +
carbon dioxide + water
acid carbonate
CO2 water
ACIDS & ALKALIS

When dilute acids are mixed with alkalis, a neutralization reaction occurs,
producing a salt and water.
MIXING WITH
Example
salt
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide Sodium chloride +
ACIDS
water
acid alkali
water
KEY CONCEPT
ACIDS, ALKALIS, &

INDICATORS
In order to tell whether a solution is an acid or an alkali, we use indicators.

Definition: Indicators are substances that show one colour in acids and
another in alkalis
Litmus indicator
Natural indicators
• Juice extracted from red cabbage is pink in acids and green in alkalis
• Hydrangea flowers are pink when grown in alkaline soil and blue when
grown in acidic soil
Universal indicator
The indicator changes into different colours when it is added to different
substances. Each colour corresponds to a pH value between 0 and 14 (pH
scale)
ACIDS, ALKALIS, & pH meter
INDICATORS
pH meters are more accurate than universal indicators.
The electrode on the meter is dipped into a solution and the pH value is
read from the meter.
KEY CONCEPT
PARTICULATE MODEL FOR

CHEMICAL CHANGES
Burning hydrogen
Burning carbon
What happens to matter in a chemical reaction?
No of atoms of reactants = no of atoms of products
Atoms are NOT created or destroyed in a reaction; they are only rearranged.
PARTICULATE
Because all the numbers of atoms are the same, the mass is also the same.
MODELS
Mass of reactants = mass of products
KEY CONCEPT
EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
BENEFITS
Nature Photosynthesis, respiration, and decay are all chemical

reactions that are important in the ecosystem
Farming Chemical reactions are used to produce fertilisers to

increase the amount of food that farmers can grow
Hygiene Shampoos contain alkalis which remove dirt and

grease; conditions contain mild acids to neutralise the
alkalis and prevent rough hair
Healthcare Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid to help in the

digestion of food. Antacids contain weak alkalis to
neutralise extra acid in stomach (during indigestion)
Manufacturing Many raw materials are changed into useful products.

Eg. compounds in crude oil are used to make plastics,
paints, and cosmetics.
BENEFITS
HARMFUL REACTIONS
Burning
Air pollutants are produced when fuels in motor vehicles, factories, and power
stations are burnt.
Air pollutants are harmful substances that make the air look and smell bad.
Polluted air is harmful to our health and to the environment.
Common pollutants
• Gases: carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
• Solid particles: ash, dust, soot
Effects of air pollutants

• Can cause lung diseases (eg. Lung cancer)
• Carbon monoxide is very poisonous when inhaled
• Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide hurt the eyes, make breathing difficult,
and can cause lung diseases
Rusting
When iron is exposed to the atmosphere, it combines with oxygen to form
iron oxide, which is rust.
Rust is a weak substance, and objects that are rusted can no longer be used.
HARMFUL
Decay of food
Food has micro-organisms growing on them. These cause chemical reactions
that can make food go bad and give it a bad taste or smell (decay). Eating
REACTIONS decayed food can cause food poisoning.


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INTERACTIONS:
Interactions Within
Ecosystems
CHAPTER ANALYSIS
10 KEY CONCEPTS
• Show an understanding of an ecosystem
• Recognise how adaptive traits and changes in environmental conditions can affect the survival of organisms
• Explain the importance of various physical factors like air, water, temperature, light, minerals and pH, to the life of organisms
• Show an understanding of the inter-relationship among the various organisms in a community
• Compare photosynthesis and respiration
• Compare respiration and breathing in terms of the roles they play in the interactions between living things and their
environment
• Show an understanding of how respiration and photosynthesis are related to the flow of energy through food chains and
food webs
• Describe how nutrients trapped in living organisms are recycled within the environment, through the actions of
decomposers
• Infer the role of decomposers in recycling of nutrients in the environment
• Explain the importance of conserving the environment & the impact of human activity on the environment
1 ADVANCED CONCEPTS
• Show an awareness of how some cultures practice sustainable living through their interactions with the environment
KEY CONCEPT
ECOSYSTEMS
TERMS
• Population: A group of organisms of the same kind
• Community: Different populations living together in the same habitat
• Ecosystem: A community of organisms in a habitat that interact with one
another and with their physical environment
ENVIRONMENT
Physical Consists of all the non-living factors in a habitat
environment • Light
• Temperature
• Air
• Water
Living Made up of all the organisms in a habitat
environment
Adaptations to the environment

• Structural adaptations: features of an organism that help it to
survive
• Porcupine fish have spikes to protect itself against predators
• Behavioural adaptations: ways an organism behaves in order to
survive
ECOSYSTEMS
• Clownfish hide in tentacles of sea anemone to prevent being
eaten by predators
KEY CONCEPT
INTERACTIONS WITH THE

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Factors of physical environments
Temperatur
Light Water Air Minerals pH
e
Light
• Green plants need light to make food through photosynthesis
• Most animals need light to see so that they can move about (find food,
avoid danger)
• FEATURES: water lilies have large leaves that float on the surface of water
to trap as much sunlight as possible
Temperature
• Temperature affects the activities and functioning of organisms
• FEATURES: Animals living in cold climates (eg. Penguins) have thick fur to
keep themselves warm
Water
• Water is crucial to an organism’s survival
FACTORS • Generally, more organisms are present where water is available

• FEATURES: cacti have thick stems to store water and waxy skin to reduce
loss of water
Air
• Plants need carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis; living things
need oxygen for respiration
• FEATURES: guppies take in air near the water surface in a pond with little
oxygen
Minerals
• Minerals are compounds that contain elements essential for healthy
growth (eg. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium). They are used to make key
substances such as chlorophyll, vitamins, and proteins
• Animals obtain minerals from the food they eat; plants obtain minerals
from solutions in the soil
pH
• The pH value of solutions in soil, or water in ponds and the sea affects the
kinds of organisms that live in these habitats
FACTORS
KEY CONCEPT
INTERACTIONS WITH THE

BIOTIC ENVIRONMENT
Predator-prey relationship
• Predators are well-adapted to catch and kill their prey
• Have good senses, speed, strong jaws, claws, and beaks,
camouflage
• Prey have important adaptations to protect them from predators
• Hedgehogs have spikes, some frogs have poison
Mutualism
• A relationship between two organisms in which both organisms benefit
• Eg. Sharks and remora fish: the fish feed off parasites on the shark’s skin
and the shark protects them from other predators
Parasitism
• A relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is harmed
• Eg. Bracket fungus grows on trees, and is a parasite as it takes water and
minerals from the tree but does nothing to help it live
INTERACTIONS
KEY CONCEPT
ENERGY FLOW
• The source of energy in an ecosystem is the sun
• Energy from the sun enters an ecosystem when it is trapped in the

leaves of green plants during photosynthesis
• The energy stored in plants is transferred to animals when they eat

plants. The energy is released in the animals through respiration
FOOD CHAINS
Secondary
Primary
consumers
Producers (green Consumers
(animals that eat
plants) (animals that eat
other primary
only plants)
consumers)
FOOD WEBS
ENERGY FLOW
Energy loss
As energy passes along a food chain, the amount of energy transferred
gradually decreases. This is because energy is lost to the environment at
each link in the food chain.
Upsetting the balance

Factors:
• Natural forces (weather, disease)
• Human activity (use of poisons, over-hunting, pollution)
ENERGY FLOW 1
Fewer mice Snake Hawk
No of plants
due to population population
increases
hunting decreases decreases
KEY CONCEPT
KEY PROCESSES
RESPIRATION VS BREATHING
Respiration Breathing
Release of energy from the food we Exchange of oxygen and carbon

eat dioxide between the organism and
the environment
Takes place in every cell Takes place in special organs (eg.
Lungs)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS VS RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis Respiration
Takes place only in plants Takes place in all organisms
Takes place in light Takes place all the time
Requires energy (light) Releases energy
Uses carbon dioxide and water Uses oxygen
Makes carbohydrate molecules Breaks down carbohydrate molecules
Oxygen given off Carbon dioxide and water given off
KEY PROCESSES
Occurs only in cells with chlorophyll Occurs in all cells
Carbon dioxide + water Glucose + oxygen
Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy

KEY CONCEPT
RECYCLING OF NUTRIENTS
DECOMPOSERS
Definition: Decomposers are organisms that feed on and break down
dead plants and animals into simpler substances which are returned to
the environment
Examples
• Bacteria
• Fungi
Products
• Carbon dioxide
• Escapes from the soil into the air, and is used for
photosynthesis in plants
• Minerals
• Dissolve in water in the soil, absorbed by plant roots for
growth
Roles
• They prevent the earth from being covered in dead matter and animal
waste
• They enrich the soil with nutrients that plants need to grow
• They conserve natural resources (ensure nutrients are always available
for plants)
Scavengers
NUTRIENT
Animals that feed on and break up dead organisms into smaller pieces
They are not decomposers, but the smaller pieces they produce help
decomposes break down dead matter more quickly.
RECYCLING
Eg. Vultures, earthworms

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CHOONG HAN JUN (COPYRIGHTED) ©

CHOONG HAN JUN (COPYRIGHTED) ©

• Classify common everyday objects

• Usage of data on properties of different materials to evaluate their uses

Mass = amount of matter something has

METHOD 1 – STATES OF MATTER

Solids Liquids Gases

METHOD 2 – KINDS OF MATERIALS

Ceramics Plastics Metals Glass Fibres

PROPERTIES Boiling point Boiling point refers to the temperature at

Material Examples Physical properties

Plastic • Plastic bags • Flexible

The SI unit for density is kg/m3.

How to determine volume?

The SI unit for volume is cubic metre (m3).

How to measure mass?

DENSITY The SI unit for mass is kilogram (kg).

We cut down forests to produce paper. Losing our forests means:

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• Show an understanding of compounds and mixtures

• Distinguish among solute, solvent, and solution

• Understand that solutions and suspensions are mixtures

Definition: An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down

As metals/non- In the periodic

Solids Liquids Gases

Properties of metals Properties of non-metals

• Shiny • Dull & soft

• Good conductors of heat and • Poor conductors of heat and

Many elements combine directly to form compounds in fixed proportions.

Solute + solvent = solution

Behaviour of particles in a suspension

Type of solute Type of solvent Temperature

Rate of dissolving is a measure of how fast a substance dissolves in a solvent.

Temperature Surface area Stirring

SOLUBILITY Most solids dissolve

Human waste may enter rivers directly from floating toilets.

Untreated waste water

IMPACTS babies (genetic damage).

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• Understand why water is a precious resource and the need to conserve it

Example: using a magnet to separate iron filings (magnetic material)

Example: filtering sand (insoluble solid) from water (liquid)

Example: evaporating a solution of sugar water to obtain sugar

Example: separate different colours in a dye (mixture)

2 processes are involved:

Example: distilling seawater (solution) to obtain pure water (pure liquid)

DISTILLATION Example: separating alcohol from water

FOUR NATIONAL TAPS

• NEWater meets 30% of the nation’s water needs

SOURCES OF CONSERVATION OF WATER

WATER Water needs to be conserved so that we can continue to have an adequate

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• Show an awareness that bacteria can have beneficial or harmful effects