AGPN CONVENT & ER SCHOOL

SESSION-2023-24
English project (ISRO)

NAME-RAHUL CHANDRA
SUBJECT-ENGLISH
SECTION-
ROLL NO-
CLASS-XII (SCIENCE)
GUIDED BY- MRS.ANISHA MONDAL & MRS MANISHA
CHAKRABORTY
DECLARATION
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I hereby declare that the investigatory Project entitled ISRO
has been eased out by my own effects and facts arrived at
my observation under the guidance and motivation of
subject teacher MISS MONISHA CHAKRABORTY and
ANISHA MONDAL (ENGLISH)

Name- RAHUL CHANDRA

Class- XII(SCIENCE)

Roll Number-

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Primarily, I would like to thank God for helping me

to complete this project on time. Then I would like to
thank my english teacher whose valuable guidance
has been the one who helped me to complete this
project. Their suggestions and instructions served as a
major contribution toward the completion of the
project. I also wish to acknowledge my heartful
thanks to our Director- Principal Mr. Krishendu
Chatterjee Sir, my parents and my close friends who
helped me to complete the Project on time.

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify the dissertation is a record of the english

project ( ISRO) is done by Rahul Chandra of Class-XII,
Science,

Roll number-
Registration number-

under the supervision of MISS MONISHA

CHAKRABORTY & ANISHA MONDAL during the A
academic session of 2023-24 as per the guidelines issued by
the Central Board of Secondary Education for appearing in
AISSCE 2023.

External Examiner’s Signature Internal Examiner’s

Signature

Principal’s signat

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 Aim
Study Of Constituents
Of Alloys

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 Introduction
An alloy (through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine),
is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in
a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid
phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more
phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on
thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different
properties from those of the component elements. Alloying one
metal with other metal(s) or non-metal (s) often enhances its
properties. For instance, steel is stronger than iron, its primary
element. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity,
Young's modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an
alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but
engineering properties, such as tensile strength and shear strength
may be substantially different from those of the constituent
materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the atoms in the
alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring
atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors,
helping the alloy resist deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked
differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element
occur. For example, impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic
alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White,
Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by
melting and mixing two or more metals. Brass is an alloy made
from copper and zinc. Bronze, used for bearings, statues,
ornaments and church bells, is an alloy of copper and tin. Unlike
pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point.
Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a
mixture of solid and liquid phases. The temperature at which
melting begins is called the solidus and the temperature when
melting is complete is called the liquidus. However, for most

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alloys, there is a particular proportion of constituents (in rare
cases two) which has a single melting point. This is called the
alloy's eutectic mixture.

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 Some Common Alloys and Their Uses

Amalgam-

Any alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are soluble

in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are
commonly used in dental fillings because they are relatively cheap,
easy to use, and durable. In addition, until recently, they have been
regarded as safe. They are made by mixing mercury with silver,
copper, tin, and other metals. The mercury content of dental fillings
has recently stirred controversy, based on the potentially harmful
effects of mercury. Mercury amalgams have also been used in the
process of mining gold and silver, because of the ease with which
mercury amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is
used as the liquid material in thermometers, because it freezes at -
58°C, whereas pure mercury freezes at -38°C.

Brass-

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A decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc and copper
samples. Brass is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a
solid solution. It has a yellow colour, somewhat similar to gold. It
was produced in prehistoric times, long before zinc was
discovered, by melting copper with calamine, a zinc ore. The
amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating a range
of brasses, each with unique properties. By comparison, bronze is
principally an alloy of copper and tin. Despite this distinction,
some types of brasses are called bronzes. Brass is relatively
resistant to tarnishing and is often used for decorative purposes.
Its malleability and acoustic properties have made it the metal of
choice for musical instruments such as the trombone, tuba,
trumpet, and euphonium. Although saxophones and harmonicas
are made out of brass, the saxophone is a woodwind instrument, and
the harmonica, a free reed aerophone. In organ pipes designed as
"reed" pipes, brass strips are used as the "reed." Aluminum
makes brassstronger and morecorrosion-resistant. It
forms a transparent, self-healing, protective layer of aluminium
oxide (Al2O3) on the surface. Tin has a similar effect and finds its
use, especially in seawater applications (naval brasses).
Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and manganese make
brass resistant to wear and tear.

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 Bronze-

Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with

tin as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements
such as
phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. Typically, bronze is
about 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin. The use of bronze was
particularly significant for early civilizations, leading to the name
"Bronze Age." Tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such
as decorative tiles were made of bronze, as they were found to be
harder and more durable than their stone and copper predecessors.
In early use, the natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a
superior natural alloy, called "arsenical bronze." Though not as
strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every application.
Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on the exposed surface),
but it does not oxidize beyond the surface. It is considerably less
brittle than iron and has a lower casting temperature. Several
bronze alloys resist corrosion (especially by seawater) and metal
fatigue better than steel; they also conduct heat and electricity
better than most steels. Bronze has myriad uses in industry. It is
widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, and similar
fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric
motors. It is also widely used for cast metal sculpture and is the
most popular metal for top-quality bells and cymbals. Commercial
bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent copper and 10
percent zinc. It contains no tin.

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 Pewter-

Pewter plate: -
Pewter is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with the
remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a hardener. Lead is
added to lower grades of pewter, giving a bluish tint.
Traditionally, there were three grades of pewter: fine, for eating
ware, with 96 to 99 percent tin and 1 to 4 percent copper; trifle, also
for eating and drinking utensils but duller in appearance, with 92
percent tin, 1 to 4 percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead; and lay
or ley metal, not for eating or drinking utensils, which could
contain up to 15 percent lead. Modern pewter mixes the tin with
copper, antimony, and/or bismuth rather than lead. Physically,
pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is similar in appearance to silver.
Like silver, it oxidizes to a dull grey over time if left untreated. It is
a very malleable alloy, being soft enough to carve with hand tools. It
also takes good impressions from punches or presses. Given this
inherent softness and malleability, pewter cannot be used to make
tools. Some types of pewter pieces, such as candlesticks, were
turned on a metal lathe, and these items are sometimes referred to as
"holloware." Pewter has a low melting point (around 225 to 240°C),
depending on the exact mixture of metals. Duplication by casting
gives excellent results. The use of pewter was common from the
Middle Ages up until the various developments in glass-making
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Pewter was the
chief tableware until the making of China. With the mass
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 production of glass products, glass has universally replaced pewter
in daily life. Today, pewter is mainly used for decorative objects
such as collectable statuettes and figurines, replica coins, and
pendants.

Nickel silver (German silver)-

Nickel silver is an alloy of copper, nickel, and often (but not always)
zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance and contains no
elemental silver. Other common names for this alloy are German
silver, paktong, new silver, and alpaca (or alpaca). Many different
formulations of alloys fall in the general category of "nickel silver."
Besides containing copper, nickel, and zinc, some formulations may
include antimony, tin, lead, or cadmium. A representative industrial
formulation (Alloy No.752) is 65 percent copper, 18 percent nickel,
and 17 percent zinc. In metallurgical science, such alloys would be
more properly termed nickel bronze. Some nickel silver alloys,
especially those containing high proportions of zinc, are stainless.
The earliest use of nickel silver appears to have been in China. It
became known to the West from imported wares called Paktong or
Pakfong, where the silvery metal color was used to imitate sterling
silver. It was discovered to be an alloy composed of copper, nickel,
and zinc in the eighteenth century. Nickel silver first became
popular as a base metal for silverplated cutlery and other
silverware, notably the electroplated wares called "E.P.N.S." (electro-
plated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, costume jewelry, and
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 musical instruments (such as cymbals). After about 1920, its use
became widespread for pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability
and corrosion resistance. In some countries, it is used in the
production of coins. Its industrial and technical uses include
marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance,
and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.

Steel-

Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with a carbon content

between 0.02 and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most
cost-effective alloying material for iron, but many other
alloying elements are also used. Carbon and other elements act as
hardening agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal lattice
from sliding past one another. By varying the amount of alloying
elements and their distribution in the steel, one can control its
qualities such as hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile
strength. Steel with increased carbon content can be made
harder and stronger than iron, but it is also more brittle. The
maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 1.7 percent by
weight occurring at 1130°C. Higher concentrations ofcarbon or
lower temperatures produce cementite, which reduces the
material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are
known as cast iron because of their lower melting point. Steel
should also be distinguished from wrought iron, with little

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 or no carbon (usually less than 0.035 percent). Currently,
there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced
with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is
undesired. More recently, steels have been defined as iron-based
alloys that can be plastically formed—pounded, rolled, and so
forth.

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 Experiment - 1
Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.
Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common
laboratory reagents.
Theory : Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the following.
Composition :
Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.
Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both these
metals dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to the formation of nitrates
which are soluble.
3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
or
Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O
4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O
4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O
The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the resulting
solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions.

Procedure :
1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this with
minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece completely.
2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained.
3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add distilled water
to the filtrate.
4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper
sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the filtrate for
the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with 50%
HNO3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution.
Appearance of deep blue colouration in the solution shows the
presence of copper ions in the solution.
5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then add solid
NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of NH4OH so
that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas through this
ammoniacal solution. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in
minimum amount of dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium

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 Ferro cyanide solution, white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions in
the solution.
Result :
The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. metals as
the main constituents.

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 Experiment - 2
Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common

laboratory reagents.

Theory : Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

Composition :
Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.
Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of bronze. Both
these metals dissolved in nitric acid.
3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O
4Sn + NO3– + 10 H 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O
(Cold and Dil. Acid)
Sn + 4NO3– + 4H H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O
(Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid)
Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The resulting
solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid. This
solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed when the
sulphides of copper and tin are formed.
Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)
H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O
The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow ammonium
sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thiostannate where as CuS is
not affected.
SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)
Ammonium thiostannate.
CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected)
Black ppt.
The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is
tested for Sn2+ ions as in elementary qualitative analysis.

Procedure :
1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add
to it 5-10 ml. of dil. HNO3.
2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin
completely and then boil the contents to a paste to remove
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 excess HNO3. All this is carried out in cup board.
3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to get
a clear solution.
4. Transfer the solution to a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till the
precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.
5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow
ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the contents. Black residue is tested for
Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2 ions.
6.Analysis of black residue:
Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of
50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light blue or green sol.
indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. Into two parts.
(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue coloration confirms the
presence of Cu+2 ions.
(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe (CN)6] i.e.,
potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish-brown ppt. confirms the
presence of Cu+2 ions.
7. Analysis of filtrate:
Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained.
Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and
boil it for 2-3 minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric
chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey on standing confirms the
presence of Sn+4 ions.
Result :
The given sample of bronze contains - Cu and Sn as the
main constituents.

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 Bibliography

ENGLISG PROJECT Class XII

WWW.google.com
WWW.Byjus .com
WWW.Brainly.in

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