AGPN CONVENT & ER SCHOOL

SESSION-2023-24
IPR Practical

NAME-RAHUL CHANDRA
SUBJECT- INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
SECTION-
ROLL NO-
CLASS-XII (SCIENCE)
GUIDED BY- MR TARUN MAHATO

1|Page
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Primarily, I would like to thank God for helping me

to complete this project on time. Then I would like to
thank my IPR teacher whose valuable guidance has
been the one who helped me to complete this project.
Their suggestions and instructions served as a major
contribution toward the completion of the project. I
also wish to acknowledge my heartful thanks to our
Director- Principal Mr. Krishendu Chatterjee Sir, my
parents, and my close friends who helped me to
complete the Project on time.

2|Page
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify the dissertation is a record of the

Information Technology practical done by Rahul Chandra
of Class-XII{ Science}

Roll number-
Registration number-

under the supervision of Mr. TARUN MAHATO during

the academic session of 2023-24 as per the guidelines issued
by the Central Board of Secondary Education for appearing
in AISSCE 2023.

External Examiner’s Signature Internal Examiner’s

Signature

Principal’s signat

3|Page
 Aim
Study Of Constituents
Of Alloys

4|Page
 Introduction
An alloy (through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine), is
a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a
metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase
microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that
may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal (heat
treatment) history. Alloys usually have different properties from
those of the component elements. Alloying one metal with other
metal(s) or non-metal (s) often enhances its properties. For instance,
steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The physical
properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus, and
electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may not differ
greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties, such
as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different
from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes due to
the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, since larger atoms exert a
compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a
tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist
deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior
even when small amounts of one element occur. For example,
impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to
different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian
Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing
two or more metals. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.
Bronze, used for bearings, statues, ornaments and church bells, is
an alloy of copper and tin. Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not
have a single melting point. Instead, they have a melting range in
which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases. The
temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus and the
temperature when melting is complete is called the liquidus.

5|Page
However, for most alloys, there is a particular proportion of
constituents (in rare cases two) which has a single melting point.
This is called the alloy's eutectic mixture.

6|Page
 Some Common Alloys and Their Uses

Amalgam-

Any alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are soluble

in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are commonly
used in dental fillings because they are relatively cheap, easy to use,
and durable. In addition, until recently, they have been regarded as
safe. They are made by mixing mercury with silver, copper, tin, and
other metals. The mercury content of dental fillings has recently
stirred controversy, based on the potentially harmful effects of
mercury. Mercury amalgams have also been used in the process of
mining gold and silver, because of the ease with which mercury
amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is used as the
liquid material in thermometers, because it freezes at - 58°C, whereas
pure mercury freezes at -38°C.

Brass-

7|Page
A decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc and copper
samples. Brass is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a
solid solution. It has a yellow colour, somewhat similar to gold. It was
produced in prehistoric times, long before zinc was discovered, by
melting copper with calamine, a zinc ore. The amount of zinc in
brass varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating a range of brasses, each with
unique properties. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of
copper and tin. Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are
called bronzes. Brass is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often
used for decorative purposes. Its malleability and acoustic
properties have made it the metal of choice for musical instruments
such as the trombone, tuba, trumpet, and euphonium. Although
saxophones and harmonicas are made out of brass, the saxophone is a
woodwind instrument, and the harmonica, a free reed aerophone. In
organ pipes designed as "reed" pipes, brass strips are used as the
"reed." Aluminum makes brass stronger and more
corrosion-resistant. It forms a transparent, self-healing,
protective layer of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) on the surface. Tin has
a similar effect and finds its use, especially in seawater applications
(naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and
manganese make brass resistant to wear and tear.

8|Page
Bronze-

Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin

as the main additive, but sometimes with other elements such as
phosphorus, manganese, aluminum, or silicon. Typically, bronze is
about 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin. The use of bronze was
particularly significant for early civilizations, leading to the name
"Bronze Age." Tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as
decorative tiles were made of bronze, as they were found to be harder
and more durable than their stone and copper predecessors. In early
use, the natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior
natural alloy, called "arsenical bronze." Though not as strong as steel,
bronze is superior to iron in nearly every application. Bronze
develops a patina (a green coating on the exposed surface), but it does
not oxidize beyond the surface. It is considerably less brittle than iron
and has a lower casting temperature. Several bronze alloys resist
corrosion (especially by seawater) and metal fatigue better than steel;
they also conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. Bronze
has myriad uses in industry. It is widely used today for springs,
bearings, bushings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common
in the bearings of small electric motors. It is also widely used for cast
metal sculpture and is the most popular metal for top-quality bells
and cymbals. Commercial bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90
percent copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin.

9|Page
 Pewter-

Pewter plate: -
Pewter is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with the
remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a hardener. Lead is
added to lower grades of pewter, giving a bluish tint. Traditionally,
there were three grades of pewter: fine, for eating ware, with 96 to
99 percent tin and 1 to 4 percent copper; trifle, also for eating and
drinking utensils but duller in appearance, with 92 percent tin, 1 to 4
percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead; and lay or ley metal, not for
eating or drinking utensils, which could contain up to 15 percent lead.
Modern pewter mixes the tin with copper, antimony, and/or bismuth
rather than lead. Physically, pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is
similar in appearance to silver. Like silver, it oxidizes to a dull grey
over time if left untreated. It is a very malleable alloy, being soft
enough to carve with hand tools. It also takes good impressions from
punches or presses. Given this inherent softness and malleability,
pewter cannot be used to make tools. Some types of pewter pieces,
such as candlesticks, were turned on a metal lathe, and these items
are sometimes referred to as "holloware." Pewter has a low melting
point (around 225 to 240°C), depending on the exact mixture of
metals. Duplication by casting gives excellent results. The use of
pewter was common from the Middle Ages up until the various
developments in glass-making during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Pewter was the chief tableware until the making of China.
10 | P a g e
 With the mass production of glass products, glass has universally
replaced pewter in daily life. Today, pewter is mainly used for
decorative objects such as collectable statuettes and figurines, replica
coins, and pendants.

Nickel silver (German silver)-

Nickel silver is an alloy of copper, nickel, and often (but not always)
zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance and contains no elemental
silver. Other common names for this alloy are German silver,
paktong, new silver, and alpaca (or alpaca). Many different
formulations of alloys fall in the general category of "nickel silver."
Besides containing copper, nickel, and zinc, some formulations may
include antimony, tin, lead, or cadmium. A representative industrial
formulation (Alloy No.752) is 65 percent copper, 18 percent nickel,
and 17 percent zinc. In metallurgical science, such alloys would be
more properly termed nickel bronze. Some nickel silver alloys,
especially those containing high proportions of zinc, are stainless. The
earliest use of nickel silver appears to have been in China. It became
known to the West from imported wares called Paktong or Pakfong,
where the silvery metal color was used to imitate sterling silver. It
was discovered to be an alloy composed of copper, nickel, and zinc in
the eighteenth century. Nickel silver first became popular as a base
metal for silverplated cutlery and other silverware, notably the
electroplated wares called "E.P.N.S." (electro-plated nickel silver). It
11 | P a g e
 is used in zippers, costume jewelry, and musical instruments (such as
cymbals). After about 1920, its use became widespread for
pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corrosion
resistance. In some countries, it is used in the production of coins. Its
industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing
fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high
electrical resistance.

Steel-

Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with a carbon content

between 0.02 and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most
cost-effective alloying material for iron, but many other alloying
elements are also used. Carbon and other elements act as hardening
agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal lattice from sliding past
one another. By varying the amount of alloying elements and their
distribution in the steel, one can control its qualities such as
hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength. Steel with
increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than
iron, but it is also more brittle. The maximum solubility of carbon
in iron is 1.7 percent by weight occurring at 1130°C. Higher
concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures produce cementite,
which reduces the material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon
content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower

12 | P a g e
 melting point. Steel should also be distinguished from wrought
iron, with little or no carbon (usually less than 0.035 percent).
Currently, there are several classes of steels in which carbon is
replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is
undesired. More recently, steels have been defined as iron-based
alloys that can be plastically formed—pounded, rolled, and so
forth.

13 | P a g e
 Experiment - 1
Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common

laboratory reagents.
Theory : Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. with the following.
Composition :
Cu = 60-90% and Zn. = 10-40%.
Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both these metals
dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to the formation of nitrates which
are soluble.
3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
or
Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O
4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O
4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O
The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the resulting
solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions.

Procedure :
1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this with minimum
quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece completely.
2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained.
3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add distilled water
to the filtrate.
4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper
sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the filtrate for the
test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with 50% HNO3.
To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution. Appearance of
deep blue colouration in the solution shows the presence of copper ions
in the solution.
5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then add solid
NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of NH4OH so
that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas through this ammoniacal
solution. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in minimum amount of

14 | P a g e
 dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro cyanide solution,
white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions in the solution.
Result :
The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. metals as the
main constituents.

15 | P a g e
 Experiment - 2
Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common

laboratory reagents.

Theory : Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following.

Composition :
Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%.
Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of bronze. Both
these metals dissolved in nitric acid.
3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O
4Sn + NO3– + 10 H 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O
(Cold and Dil. Acid)
Sn + 4NO3– + 4H H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O
(Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid)
Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution. The resulting
solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid. This solution
is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed when the sulphides of
copper and tin are formed.
Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.)
H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O
The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow ammonium
sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thiostannate where as CuS is not
affected.
SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble)
Ammonium thiostannate.
CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected) Black
ppt.
The soluble black ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is
tested for Sn2+ ions as in elementary qualitative analysis.

Procedure :
1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add
to it 5-10 ml. of dil. HNO3.
2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin
16 | P a g e
 completely and then boil the contents to a paste to remove excess
HNO3. All this is carried out in cup board.
3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to get
a clear solution.
4. Transfer the solution to a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till the
precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate.
5. Take the black ppt. in a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow
ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the contents. Black residue is tested for
Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2 ions.
6.Analysis of black residue:
Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of
50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light blue or green sol.
indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. Into two parts.
(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue coloration confirms the
presence of Cu+2 ions.
(b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4 [Fe (CN)6] i.e.,
potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish-brown ppt. confirms the
presence of Cu+2 ions.
7. Analysis of filtrate:
Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained.
Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and
boil it for 2-3 minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric
chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey on standing confirms the
presence of Sn+4 ions.
Result :
The given sample of bronze contains - Cu and Sn as the main
constituents.

17 | P a g e
 Bibliography

ENGLISG PROJECT Class XII

WWW.google.com
WWW.Byjus .com
WWW.Brainly.in

18 | P a g e