International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182

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International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and

Geoinformation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jag

Ground movements caused by deep underground mining in Guan-Zhuang iron

mine, Luzhong, China
Wen-Xiu Li a,∗ , Lei Wen b , Xiao-Min Liu a
a
College of Machinery and Civil Engineering, Hebei University, No. 180, Wusidong Road, Baoding 071002, PR China
b
Research Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: It is difficult to calculate the accurate ground movement due to deep underground mining because of
Received 20 February 2009 the complexity of the geotechnical environment. Guan-Zhuang iron mine is a pillarless sublevel caving
Accepted 22 February 2010 mine operated by Luzhong Metallurgical Mining Company, south-east of Jinan, PR China. It mines the
Zhangjiawa Seam at a depth of approximately 520 m. Although the towers are outside the conventional
Keywords: ‘angle of draw’ subsidence influence criteria, and have seen only negligible vertical displacement as a
Deep mining
result of deep mining, there has been widespread evidence of regional horizontal displacement of the
Iron ore
land surface, large distances away from the mining area. Possible explanations of these displacements
GPS data
Ground movement
include one or a combination of mechanisms such as pre-mining stress relaxation, regional joint patterns,
Regional horizontal displacement soft rock strata, displacement toward active goaf areas. Luzhong Metallurgical Mining Company have been
making precise measurements of distances near the shaft towers in the Guan-Zhuang iron mine since
2003. The results show horizontal displacements of up to 96 mm occur even when underground mining
is about 0.8 km from the survey displacements. From an analysis of these and other survey results it is
concluded that mining effects extend a long way from deep mining. The results also show that ground
horizontal displacements are typically at least as great as the vertical component, that the maximum
horizontal displacement occurs soon after undermining.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Guan-Zhuang iron mine is one of a number of underground iron
mines to the eastern and south-east of Jinan, operated by Luzhong
Metallurgical Mining Company, which mines the Zhangjiawa iron
orebody at a depth of approximately 520 m using the pillarless
sublevel caving method. The sublevel height is typically about
10–12.5 m. The pillarless sublevel caving workings in these mining
areas are at depths of about 410–520 m, and displacements were
being measured 0.8 km or more away from an active sublevel. Fig. 2
shows one example of these measured displacements and it can be
seen that in this case lateral displacements of about 30 mm were
measured about 0.8 km away from a sublevel panel being extracted
at a depth of about 530 m. There were no measurable vertical dis-
placements at this distance. These lateral displacements have been
termed “far field effects” (Reid, 1998; Hebblewhite, 2001; Blodgett
et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003).
The magnitude of the measured horizontal displacements, and
the fact that some of these displacements have commenced when
mining was as far as 0.8 km from the survey monuments, has sur-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 312 5079493; fax: +86 312 5079375.
E-mail address: leewenxiu@yahoo.com.cn (W.-X. Li).
prised many observers and lead to questions about whether the
displacements have been due to mining, or to a tectonic mecha-
nism, or to a combination of factors. When expressed in terms of
an “angle of effect”, 0.8 km is equivalent to an angle in excess of 38◦ .
The paper is particularly focused on the regional displace-
ment behaviour of the ground surface, including the towers, and
the development of possible geomechanical explanations for such
behaviour.
2. Geotechnical and surface environment of mining area
In Guan-Zhuang iron mine, the overlying strata consist of a series
of sandstones, pelitic siltstones; siltstones, gritstones, hornstones,
marbles, skarns and claystones. Some of these strata are quite
massive and thickly bedded, but with dominant vertical jointing
persisting through most horizons. The strata are generally sub-
horizontal. The soil in the vicinity of the displacements is generally
thin and sandy (Alluvium). The stratigraphy of the Zhangjiawa
region (Zhangjiawa iron basin) is summarized in the general strati-
graphic column shown in Fig. 1.
There are a number of major and minor geological structures
running through the area, typically normal faults, or fault regions,
which generally have a northeasterly strike. This direction also
coincides with the dominant joint direction in the pelitic siltstone,

0303-2434/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jag.2010.02.005
176 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182

in the Guan-Zhuang iron mine region. A secondary, northeast trend-

Fig. 1. Generalized stratigraphic section of the Zhangjiawa iron basin.
ing joint set creates a blocky nature to the surface pelitic siltstone.
A feature of the horizontal stress in the Zhangjiawa iron basin, and
the region around Guan-Zhuang iron mine in particular, is the high
ratio of horizontal to vertical pre-mining stress. A stress ratio in
excess of 1.3:1 has been measured in a number of locations at Guan-
Zhuang iron mine, with a predominant northwest orientation for
the major principal stress direction. This results in pre-mining hor-
izontal stress levels of in excess of 24 MPa in some parts of the
mining area.
Fig. 2 is a plan showing the location of the current Guan-Zhuang
iron mine workings (and in particular, mining areas E-270 and N-
330), together with the surface topography and civil infrastructure
on the surface. This diagram indicates that the closest distance
between the shaft tower and the goaf edge of both E-270 and N-330
was in excess of 400 m. The other surface infrastructure shown in
Fig. 2 includes the Jiqing Highway – the major, six-lane highway
connecting Jinan and Qingdao, and the Main Southern Railway, in
the north east corner of the plan. The nature of the surface land
coverage and land use consists of wooded areas, cleared in places
for light industrial/agricultural and residential use. Mining in this
vicinity is therefore strictly controlled and very carefully monitored
in relation to ground subsidence and environmental impact due to
deep underground mining of iron ore body.
A particular concern for the extraction of E-270 and N-330 was
the potential subsidence impact on the twin shaft towers. Previous
experience had indicated that severe incompetent beds in other
mining areas of this lease, and elsewhere, could result in signifi-
cant ‘anomalous’ subsidence behaviour. This included significant
horizontal tower deformation and large-scale, regional, horizontal
displacement due to deep underground mining of iron ore body.

Fig. 2. Plan of Guan-Zhuang iron mine, surface features (I-××, II× are geological prospecting lines).
 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182
Fig. 3. Parameters definitions (after Shadbolt, 1978) ( = limit angle; ˇ = break angle;  = angle of draw; M = seam thickness; w = extraction width; S = subsidence).
3. Mining subsidence model
3.1. Basic framework of subsidence problem in Guan-Zhuang
mining area
The basic questions asked with regard to ground subsidence
are few in number and seem deceptively simple to answer. Given
an underground opening of known vertical and horizontal dimen-
sions, one wants to know:
(a) How much vertical displacement will there be at the ground
surface in Guan-Zhuang mining area?
(b) What will be the lateral extent of ground surface subsidence?
(c) When has ground subsidence occurred or will occur?
(d) Has the process of ground subsidence been continuous from
beginning to end or has it been episodic?
Generally, the ground subsidence theories used to answer these
questions are based on the assumption that extraction of ore
has been complete and that a continuous unsupported void has
been created. These conditions do result where longwall mining
methods are utilized in essentially horizontal strata, as in Europe.
However, in China, most metal ore mining was done by the pillar-
less sublevel caving method in deep strata and the underground
conditions created cannot easily be made to fit European ground
subsidence models.
The void created by mineral extraction deforms and fails causing
a lowering of the ground surface often accompanied by horizon-
tal displacements. Formal studies of subsidence began in the 19th
century. They were focused on the coal mines in Belgium, France
and Germany. The studies were initiated since the ground subsi-
dence resulted in damage to overlying mine facilities and railways
Fig. 4. State of stress after mining (after Shadbolt, 1978).
177
(Kratzsch, 1983). These early reports created the scientific founda-
tion for future subsidence studies and pinpointed the mechanisms
of ground subsidence. Today, studies of ground subsidence include
structural geology, geomechanics, surveying, mining and property
law, and mining methods and techniques.
The underground mining methods can be classified based on
their support condition. The mining method is selected based on the
geometry of the orebody and the geomechanical properties of the
ore and the country rock. Thereby, surface deformation induced by
mining has distinctive features depending on the employed mining
method. Subsidence engineering was for a long time mainly focused
on subsidence caused by sublevel caving in deep metal ore mining
where subsidence is mostly continuous. Mathematical formulae
used for prediction and management of metal ore mining subsi-
dence have been developed and tested during the last decades (Li
et al., 2004). The ground subsidence are also depend on the mining
method.
Trough subsidence forms as a gentle depression over a large
area. Depiction of continuous subsidence requires defining terms
such as angle of draw or its complement (limit angle) and angle of
fracture which vary depending on the mechanical properties of the
rock.
Modern attempts to relate surface subsidence to underground
mining make use of the concept of the subsidence trough. The
concept takes into account one of the most important observed
facts regarding subsidence; namely, that the surface area affected
is larger than the mined-out area. The extraction of ore removes
support from the overlying strata causing them to sag into the void
space created. The sag is propagated upward to the surface, and, it
follows, that the maximum ground subsidence can be no greater
than the thickness of the ore bed mined (In beds that dip signifi-
cantly subsidence can exceed the thickness of the ore bed mined).
178 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182

Fig. 5. Normal mining induced displacements above an extracted area (after Whittaker and Reddish, 1989).

However, the lateral extent of subsidence at the surface is greater
than the extent of underground mining. The surface position of
the boundary between areas of subsidence and no subsidence is
defined by the “angle of draw” (see Fig. 3). This is the angle between
a vertical line drawn upward to the surface from the edge of the
underground opening and a line drawn from the edge of the open-
ing to the point of zero surface subsidence. The angle of draw varies
from 25◦ to 35◦ in most instances.
Traditionally, limits of subsidence have been defined using
angles measured from the working face to the ground surface. The
following angles, shown in Fig. 3, are commonly used in mining
subsidence engineering.
The angle of draw is the angle between the vertical line drawn
upward to the surface from the edge of the underground opening
and a line drawn from the edge of the opening to the point of zero
ground displacement. It is typically in the range from 25◦ to 35◦ .
The angle of break is the angle between the vertical line at the edge
of the mine opening and the line connecting the opening edge to
the point of maximum tensile strain at the surface. It is typically
5–15◦ .
In longwall or sublevel caving mining, the overlying strata expe-
riences stress re-distributions as a result of the mining as illustrated
in Fig. 4. Continuous or trough subsidence forms as a gentle depres-
sion over a large area. Material over the central part of the mined
void moves vertically downward at the same time as material from
the adjacent sides moves toward the centre and downward (see
Fig. 5). This kind of subsidence may also appear for the sublevel
caving mining method (Li et al., 2004).
The basic ground movements developed for surface trough
subsidence are: (a) vertical subsidence or vertical displacement;
(b) horizontal displacement; (c) tilt, i.e., the derivative of ver-
tical displacement with respect to the horizontal (differential
subsidence); (d) horizontal strain (extension and compression),
i.e., the derivative of horizontal displacement with respect to
the horizontal; (e) vertical curvature (differential tilt), which
may be approximated by the derivative of the slope or the sec-

Fig. 6. Results of far field movement due to N-330 and E-270 (I-××, II× are geological prospecting lines)
 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182 179

Fig. 7. (a) Vertical displacements due to N-330 and E-270 (shaft tower 1—main shaft tower). (b) Horizontal displacements due to N-330 and E-270 (shaft tower 1—main
shaft tower).

ond derivative of the vertical displacement with respect to the
horizontal.
These five components of ground movement can cause damage
in buildings and structures in different ways. Slip type displace-
ments between the foundation and the ground may take place,
thereby, the magnitude of deformation experienced by structures
may be different to that measured on the ground. Although it is
difficult to estimate the amount of subsidence that will adversely
affect structural members and/or architectural features, empirical
criteria based on field observations of ground movement and civil
structures reactions have been established.
3.2. Results for analysis of the underground mining
The larger the angle of draw the wider will be the zone on the
surface in which subsidence should occur. By using the largest
of several possible angles of draw a greater margin of safety is
established for those areas lying outside the boundary of possible
subsidence. Subsidence usually occurs gradually when it is con-
current with mining. After cessation of mining, subsidence may
continue to occur in a steady, gradual manner, or it may stop for a
period, to be followed by failure at some later date.
In 2004, Li et al. (2004) reported several instances of large
horizontal displacements being measured in the mining area sur-
rounding the shaft towers over preceding years. The paper states
“The change of in-situ stress field due to underground mining of metal
ore has often resulted in major disasters in the metal mines. Stress
change not only influences the stability of the deep tunnel, but also
changes the range of rock mass displacements due to mining. Based
on the results of numerical analysis for a large amount of measured
results of in-situ stress in metal mine, the fundamental theoretical for-
mulas of in-situ stress in horizontal and vertical direction are given.
180 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182
Fig. 8. Horizontal displacements due to N-330 and E-270 (shaft tower 2—sub-shaft
tower).
The results of the numerical analysis show that the in-situ stress, the
range of rock mass displacements and deformations in overlying strata
increase with the increment of depth of underground mining. The
influence of the tectonic stress in the horizontal direction on range
of rock mass displacements is evident, which is very important for
deep underground excavation activities, especially for the metal ore
mining.”
In 2006, Li et al. (2006a) reported a number of different
behaviours associated with subsidence in soft rock strata condi-
tion. The paper stated “Prediction of ground movements and their
surface effects is an important problem of the rock mass mechan-
ics in the excavation activities, especially the ore mining in soft rock
mining areas. Whether planned or accidental, such movements can
cause considerable damage to structures located within the area of
influence of underground mining works. Example is the recent subsi-
dence that took place at the end of the 1990s in the Luzhong mining
areas. A better understanding is necessary on how ground surface
movements can be imparted to the supported structure and damages
it. . . The results show that the area of rock mass displacements and
deformations in overlying strata will deteriorate with the increase in
depth.”
The paper by Li et al. (2006b) refers to the same geographic
region around the North area. They claim that if elastic mechan-
ics methods are used to predict horizontal displacements due
to underground mining, rather than the empirically derived pre-
diction methods based primarily on ground subsidence (vertical
displacement), then the observed horizontal displacements due to
underground mining, at angles of draw in excess of 38◦ , will exceed
the ground subsidence due to underground mining.
4. Monitoring results of ground displacements due to
underground mining
GPS monitoring of shaft towers for horizontal displacements
is instituted by the Luzhong Metallurgical Mining Company, con-
ventional precise leveling and theodolite surveys on selected,
accessible traverse lines across the overall terrain and adjacent to,
and on the towers.
This paper is focused on the landmass displacements, rather
than the detail of the structure response at the tower. The data
presented here consists primarily of the GPS data (which had an
accuracy of ±15 mm), plus some specific tower horizontal and
vertical monitoring data. Fig. 2 shows the location of the GPS mon-
itoring data points, indicated as “G1”, “G2”, “G3” stations, plus
some additional points, such as the stations adjacent to the tow-
ers, A1–A31 and B1–B27 (surveyed by conventional precise leveling
and theodolite). Fig. 1 shows the location of the GPS monitoring data
points, indicated as “G1”, “G2”, “G3” stations, plus some additional
points, such as the stations adjacent to the towers, A1–A31 and
B1–B27 (surveyed by conventional precise leveling and theodolite).
Figs. 6–8 present the results of the GPS monitoring data, in the
form of vector plots for total horizontal displacement. The vec-
tor displacements on these diagrams are displayed as directional
arrowheads, with the arrow length proportional to the total hor-
izontal displacement recorded. The arrows are located with their
mid-length point positioned on the survey station. A 30 mm scale
vector is shown in the top left corner of each diagram. Fig. 6 rep-
resents the results of horizontal displacement recorded between
the start of N-330 and 3 months after E-270 and completion (most
results took approximately 3 months before movement diminished
to an insignificant level, after mining ceased). Figs. 7 and 8 are the
result of the horizontal displacements due to both N-330 and E-270.
Features of the monitoring results are as follows:
(1) Maximum horizontal displacement of approximately 90 mm
from each panel extraction, for stations in the D0–D27 location,
directly the two goaf areas N-330 and E-270.
(2) Displacement of stations G1–G3 (close to the E-270 mining area
location) was up to 59 mm, due to E-270, and a further 90 mm
due to N-330 (G3 is respectively 310 m (35◦ angle of draw) and
430 m (38◦ ) away from the two panel goaf edges).
(3) Station G3, 430 m distant from the edge of N-330 (38◦ angle of
draw), recorded in excess of 59 mm Displacement towards the
goaf due to mining N-330. The station at the northern end of
the north mining area recorded a total of in excess of 40 mm
displacement towards the goaf edge (roughly 50% from each
panel extraction), although the 10 mm survey accuracy must
be borne in mind with this and all EDM results.
(4) The station A1 at the eastern of the tower has not recorded any
significant movement (Fig. 9). Station A1, 800 m distant from
the edge of N-330 (38◦ angle of draw), was recorded in excess
of 20 mm displacement towards the goaf due to mining N-330
and E-270.
(5) Displacement appears to be effectively complete within
approximately 450 m of the face passing.
(6) Maximum horizontal displacement due to N-330 and E-270
mining on the C4–C20 line was in excess of 400 mm. Total dis-
placement (between stations A16 and A21) during extraction
of both E-270 and N-330 was in excess of 460 mm.
(7) A maximum of 305 mm horizontal displacement was recorded
in May 2008 as a result of N-330 extraction only.
In the mining area, the main features of these results can be
summarized as follows:
(a) There is evidence of large-scale, regional ground horizontal dis-
placement due to underground mining, at great distances away
from the active mining location.
(b) Most of the horizontal displacement takes place towards both
the shaft tower and the active goaf area, although some move-
ment has been observed towards old goaf areas.
(c) Shaft tower displacement of “shaft tower area” of up to 96 mm
have been recorded, with maximum displacement occurring
within 360 m of the sublevel face passing beneath.
 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182
Fig. 9. (a) Ground vertical displacements of station A1 due to N-330 and E-270 (m).
(b) Ground horizontal displacements of station A1 due to N-330 and E-270 (m).
5. Analysis of the “far field effects” due to deep
underground mining
5.1. Horizontal stress effects in the mining area
The excavation of underground openings results in the devel-
opment of fractures and in changes in the stress state and the
distribution of porewater pressure in the rock mass close to the
opening. Such changes alter the mechanical properties of the sur-
rounding rock mass, such as its strength and deformability, and
hydraulic properties and also influence geochemical conditions
such as the redox potential of groundwater. The region in which
these properties are changed due to the excavation is referred to as
the excavation disturbed zone. Information on the extent and prop-
erties of the excavation disturbed zone is important for optimizing
the design and construction of a deep repository. The evaluation
of the excavation disturbed zone is considered to be of particu-
lar importance, since its presence may result in changes to the
transport characteristics of the rock mass adjacent to underground
openings, which may persist for considerable periods after closure
of the repository. In the prevailing high horizontal stress field, it
has been suggested that caving above the sublevel panel extraction
181
would result in significant directional, horizontal closure toward
the sides of the caved void. This would result in more widespread
displacement on the surface, in the direction of the principal hori-
zontal stress field in the mining area.
The maximum horizontal stress in the mining area:
H = 1.3H (1)
where  is the unit weight of rock mass ( = 27 kN/m3 ); H is mining
depth; the direction of the maximum horizontal stress: N70◦ E.
The studies have related natural geomorphic and hydrological
behaviours of natural landscapes to subsidence impacts deter-
mined by physical and numerical modeling to enhance our
understanding of mining-induced subsidence and its environmen-
tal implications.
The major findings of the research show that mining induced
movements in Guan-Zhuang Iron Mine have at least two major
components:
(1) Normal subsidence movements above the sublevel.
(2) Movements caused by redistribution of regional in situ stresses.
Fig. 6 gives a summary of far field movement due to N-330
and E-270 in the Zhangjiawa Basin, collected by mine subsidence
engineering consultants. It has become apparent that the far field
movements are due to redistribution of the high horizontal stress
field in the purplish red sandstones and siltstones that overlie the
ore-deposit III. These horizontal stresses are typically 1.3 times the
overburden pressure.
Over the past 35 years iron ore has been extracted over a huge
area within the eastern mining areas, and much of this has involved
almost total extraction by sublevel caving. This extraction creates
goaf and sag zones extending 120–280 m above the seams. The hor-
izontal stress that was previously transmitted through this goaf
zone now must be transferred over the top of the goaf, and around
the mined area.
5.2. Activation of sub-horizontal geological structures in the
mining area
Displacement of underlying strata may be sufficient to unclamp
and release the confining forces acting on horizontal features such
as soft rock strata horizons and bedding planes. This may then allow
‘rigid-body’ displacement of the overlying strata, through shear-
ing along the reduced friction bedding planes. This could occur
close to the surface, where bedding planes are exposed in min-
ing area sides, and the overlying rock mass can move, ‘en masse’
towards the mining area. It could also occur below sublevel which
has been undermined, resulting in both rigid-body, and buckling
type displacement of the strata.
5.3. Effects of mining-induced seismic events on a deep
underground mine
The performance of an underground excavation at the Guan-
Zhuang iron mine that was subjected to repetitive episodes of
mining-induced seismic activities is assessed. Field measurements
indicate that an underground excavation may respond to mining-
induced seismicity with step changes in displacement of the rock
mass around the excavation or step changes in excavation clo-
sures. However, step changes in displacement or closure were
also observed without the presence of mine seismic events. This
behaviour may be explained using the concept of stick–slip on
joints or bedding planes within the rock mass. The stick–slip mech-
anism is believed to be controlled by the state of stresses at a joint
or bedding plane. Through this mechanism, joint displacement is
accumulated in a progressive fashion leading to a weakening of rock
182 W.-X. Li et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 12 (2010) 175–182
mass around an excavation. As a result, the excavation becomes less
stable and therefore is more susceptible to seismic impacts. The
concept of using peak particle velocity to assess damage thresh-
old for underground excavations may not be conservative when
considering the effect of rock mass fatigue.
5.4. Impacts of potential hydrologic on rock mass
displacements—hydrogeological effects
Localized drainage giving rise to significant lowering of the
water table can result in appreciable subsidence. Drainage gra-
dients, patterns and groundwater flow may change because of
opening or closing of bedrock fissures. Localized erosion features
can occur at the surface above such bedrock fissures. Underground
mine openings can intercept and convey surface water and ground-
water. When excavated below the water table, mine voids serve as
low-pressure sinks inducing groundwater to move to the openings
from the surrounding saturated rock. The result is the dewatering
of nearby rock units via drainage of fractures and water-bearing
strata in contact with the mine workings. There is also the poten-
tial for impacts to more remote water-bearing units and surface
water bodies depending on the degree of hydrologic communica-
tion. The extent and severity of the impact on the local surface water
and groundwater systems depends on the depth of the mine, the
topographic and hydrogeologic setting, and the hydrologic charac-
teristics of the adjacent strata. Additionally, the amount and extent
of mine subsidence-related changes to the rock mass govern the
impacts of underground metal ore mining on surface water and
groundwater.
In the flat-lying sedimentary rocks of Guan-Zhuang iron mine,
underground mining is routinely accompanied by rock fracturing,
dilation of joints, and separation along bedding planes. Rock move-
ments occur vertically above the mine workings and at an angle
projected away from the mined-out area. Mining-induced fractur-
ing within this angle can result in hydrologic impacts beyond the
margins of the mine workings. The zone along the perimeter of the
mine that experiences hydrologic impacts is said to lie within the
“angle of dewatering” or “angle of influence” of the mine. Angle of
influence values of 28–41◦ have been obtained for the mining areas
of northern and eastern.
These changes to the rock mass can change the water transmit-
ting capabilities of the rock by creating new fractures and enlarging
existing fractures. This typically results, at least temporarily, in
detectable changes in permeability, storage capacity, groundwa-
ter flow direction, surface water/groundwater interactions, and
groundwater levels. Depending on the ratio of overburden to seam
thickness and the type of mining, measurable surface movements
may occur.
According to the study of Parizek and Ramani (1996), the
enhancement of the overburden hydraulic conductivity due to
mining is neither uniform nor well-defined. Predicting impacts is
difficult and there is no such thing as a ‘typical’ hydrogeologic set-
ting or mine site.
6. Conclusions
From an analysis of these and other survey results it is concluded
that mining effects extend a long way from mining. The results also
show that horizontal displacements are typically at least as great
as the vertical component, that the maximum horizontal displace-
ment occurs soon after undermining, and that displacements are
generally directed towards the goaf.
The above mechanisms are quite feasible. And these mecha-
nisms are involved in the rock feature response in conditions of soft
rock strata in Guan-Zhuang iron mine. It is also feasible that the
behaviour is quite consistent with conventional elastic response
to mining complicated only by the geological features. This sug-
gests that a regional, possibly rigid-body type of displacement is
occurring. It is possible, on the basis of evidence from the A–A Line
(A1–A21) data.
Horizontal displacements coincide with a period of mining, and
occur together with ground subsidence (vertical displacement)
known to be caused by deep underground mining.
The maximum total horizontal displacements are of the same
order as the maximum ground subsidence (vertical displacement).
The incremental horizontal displacements are usually greater than
the incremental ground subsidence (vertical displacement) due to
deep underground mining in soft rock strata.
Acknowledgements
The efforts of all members of the Luzhong Metallurgical Mining
Company involved in this project, and their respective support staff
in collecting and processing the extensive quantity of data from the
monitoring program, is acknowledged.
The assistance of Mr. Xinqiang Liu, of Wenzhe Zhang and Chun-
lin Ha, in preparing data for this paper is also acknowledged.
The project was supported by the research project of science and
technology from the Hebei Province is gratefully acknowledged (no.
072156142).
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