CREDIT QUESTIONS

1. Psycholinguistics as a science. Its object, subject matter, aim and objectives.

Psycholinguistics is a scientific field that studies how humans acquire, produce,
understand, and use language. Its object of study is the relationship between
language and the human mind, focusing on how language is processed,
represented, and stored in the brain. The aim of psycholinguistics is to understand
the cognitive processes and mechanisms involved in language use, including
speech perception, word recognition, sentence comprehension, and language
production.
2. History of Psycholinguistics.
Psycholinguistics has its roots in various disciplines such as psychology,
linguistics, and cognitive science. It emerged as a distinct field of study in the
1950s and has since developed through different generations. Early research
focused on behavioral experiments to investigate language processing. Over time,
advancements in technology and theories from cognitive psychology and
linguistics have shaped the field, leading to more sophisticated experimental
techniques and theoretical frameworks.
3. Psycholinguistics of the 1st generation (Ch. Osgood).
Charles Osgood was a prominent figure in the early days of psycholinguistics. His
work primarily revolved around understanding the psychological processes
involved in language comprehension and meaning. Osgood introduced the concept
of "semantic differential," a technique for measuring people's subjective
impressions of words or concepts on various scales, such as good-bad, strong-
weak, and active-passive.
4. Psycholinguistics of the 2nd generation (N. Chomsky and the ‘Chomskyan
revolution’ in Linguistics).
Noam Chomsky, a renowned linguist, made significant contributions to
psycholinguistics with his theory of generative grammar. Chomsky argued that
humans possess an innate language acquisition device, which enables them to
acquire language through a universal grammar. This theory challenged the
behaviorist perspective prevalent at the time and revolutionized the study of
language by emphasizing mental representations and cognitive processes involved
in language production and comprehension.
5. Linguistic consciousness and linguistic picture of the world.
Linguistic consciousness refers to the awareness and understanding individuals
have about their own language and its structures. It encompasses knowledge of
grammar, vocabulary, and rules of language use. The linguistic picture of the world
refers to the way language shapes our perception, cognition, and interpretation of
the world around us. Different languages may have unique linguistic features that
influence how speakers perceive and conceptualize reality.
6. Linguistic personality and his/her components.
Linguistic personality refers to the unique characteristics and patterns of language
use that are specific to individuals. It encompasses various components, such as
vocabulary, grammar, speech patterns, and communicative style. These linguistic
features can reflect a person's cultural background, education, social identity, and
personal experiences.
7. Kinds of knowledge.
In psycholinguistics, different kinds of knowledge are relevant to the study of
language. Declarative knowledge refers to factual information and explicit
knowledge that can be consciously accessed, such as knowing the meaning of
words or grammar rules. Procedural knowledge, on the other hand, relates to
implicit knowledge and skills acquired through practice and experience, such as
the ability to speak fluently without consciously thinking about grammar rules.
8. Language/linguistic knowledge (declarative vs. procedural).
Language or linguistic knowledge can be classified into declarative and procedural
knowledge. Declarative knowledge involves conscious awareness of language
rules, vocabulary, and facts about language. Procedural knowledge is more
automatic and involves the practical skills needed for language use, such as
pronunciation, sentence construction, and understanding idiomatic expressions.
9. Encyclopedic and inferential knowledge.
Encyclopedic knowledge refers to general knowledge about the world, including
facts, concepts, and information that is not specific to language. Inferential
knowledge, on the other hand, involves the ability to make inferences and draw
conclusions based on available information. It relies on the integration of various
sources of knowledge, including encyclopedic knowledge and contextual cues, to
derive meaning and understanding.
10. Knowledge representation structures (frame, schema, schemata).
Knowledge representation structures are mental frameworks that organize and
store information in the mind. Frames, schemas, or schemata are cognitive
structures that help individuals organize and interpret knowledge. They provide a
way to categorize, store, and retrieve information related to specific concepts or
situations. These structures help in efficient processing and understanding of
language.
11.Knowledge representation structures (scenario, script).
Scenarios and scripts are specific types of knowledge representation structures. A
scenario represents a mental image or description of a specific event or situation,
capturing the temporal and spatial aspects. Scripts are broader frameworks that
describe typical sequences of events or actions associated with specific situations
or activities. Scenarios and scripts help in comprehension and prediction by
providing a structured representation of knowledge.
12. Memory as a system of knowledge representation.
Memory plays a crucial role in knowledge representation. It is a cognitive system
that stores and retrieves information. Memory allows us to encode, store, and recall
knowledge, including linguistic information. It involves different processes such as
encoding (inputting information), storage (retaining information), and retrieval
(accessing stored information).
13. Genetic and innate memory.
Genetic memory refers to inherited or instinctive behaviors and knowledge passed
down through genes. Innate memory, also known as innate knowledge, refers to
the knowledge or abilities that humans possess from birth without the need for
explicit learning or experience. While genetic and innate factors can influence
memory, it is important to note that memory is also shaped by learning and
experience.
14. Logical, verbal memory.
Logical memory refers to the ability to remember and reason with logical
information, such as sequences, patterns, and logical relationships. Verbal memory
specifically relates to the storage and retrieval of verbal or linguistic information,
such as remembering words, sentences, or discourse.
15.Short-term and long-term memory.
Short-term memory, also known as working memory, is a temporary storage
system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration. It is
involved in immediate processing and manipulation of information. Long-term
memory, on the other hand, has a vast capacity and is responsible for the storage of
information over a more extended period, ranging from minutes to a lifetime.
16. Linguistic memory.
Linguistic memory refers to the storage and retrieval of linguistic information,
including words, grammar rules, vocabulary, and language structures. It
encompasses both short-term and long-term memory processes specific to
language-related content.
17. Mental lexicon.
The mental lexicon is a mental repository or storage system where individuals
store their knowledge of words, including their meanings, pronunciations, syntactic
properties, and associations. It is a component of long-term memory and plays a
crucial role in language processing and comprehension.
18. Conceptual system.
The conceptual system refers to the cognitive framework or mental representation
of concepts and their relationships. It involves organizing knowledge into
categories, hierarchies, and networks of related concepts. The conceptual system
allows individuals to understand, reason, and make inferences about the world
around them.
19. General features of human perception.
Human perception involves the process of acquiring, interpreting, and organizing
sensory information from the environment. Some general features of human
perception include the ability to detect and differentiate stimuli, integrate sensory
information from multiple sources, perceive patterns and structures, and make
sense of sensory input through cognitive processes.
20. Levels of information perception.
Information perception occurs at different levels. At the sensory level, individuals
perceive raw sensory input from their environment, such as visual, auditory, or
tactile stimuli. At a higher level, individuals engage in perceptual organization and
interpretation, where they process and integrate sensory information to recognize
objects, events, or language stimuli.

21. Figure-ground distinction in human perception.

Figure-ground distinction refers to the ability to differentiate between a foreground
(figure) and a background (ground) in perceptual stimuli. It involves identifying
and focusing on the main object or figure while separating it from the background
or surrounding context. This distinction is essential for object recognition and
visual perception.
22. Old and new information/ theme and rheme / topic and comment.
In language, information can be categorized as old or new, depending on its prior
mention or introduction in discourse. Old information refers to previously
mentioned or established information, while new information introduces
something not previously mentioned. Similarly, the terms theme and rheme or
topic and comment are used to describe the organization of information in a
sentence or discourse. The theme/topic represents the central idea or subject, while
the rheme/comment provides information or makes a statement about the
theme/topic.
23.Types of information (procedural vs. conceptual).
In psycholinguistics, information can be classified as procedural or conceptual.
Procedural information relates to knowledge of processes, actions, and skills. It is
often implicit and involves knowing "how" to do something. Conceptual
information, on the other hand, encompasses knowledge about concepts, ideas,
facts, and general principles. It is typically explicit and involves knowing "what"
something is or how it is defined.
24.Models and stages of speech/ text comprehension (interpretation).
Various models and stages have been proposed to understand the process of speech
and text comprehension. These models typically involve stages such as perceptual
analysis, parsing or syntactic analysis, semantic interpretation, and integration of
meaning. The models help explain how individuals process and understand
linguistic input.
25.Human background (experience) in text comprehension.
Human background or experience plays a crucial role in text comprehension.
Individuals bring their knowledge, beliefs, cultural background, and personal
experiences to the process of understanding text. Background knowledge helps in
making inferences, interpreting ambiguous language, and constructing meaning
based on prior knowledge and context.
26.Stages of speech / text generation.
The process of speech or text generation involves several stages. These stages
typically include conceptualization (forming the idea or message to be conveyed),
linguistic planning (organizing the structure and content), and articulation
(physically producing the speech sounds or writing the text). These stages require
coordination between cognitive processes, linguistic knowledge, and motor skills.
27.Children’s language acquisition in ontogenesis.
Children's language acquisition refers to the process through which children
acquire their first language(s). Ontogenesis refers to the development of an
individual from conception to maturity. Children go through various stages of
language acquisition, starting from babbling and early word production to more
complex sentence structures and vocabulary expansion. This process is influenced
by innate factors, environmental input, social interactions, and cognitive
development.
28. Language areas in human brain. Functional asymmetry of human cerebral
hemispheres.
Language processing involves specific areas in the human brain. The two primary
language areas are Broca's area and Wernicke's area, typically located in the left
hemisphere. Broca's area is involved in language production and syntax, while
Wernicke's area is associated with language comprehension. The functional
asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres means that language processing is
predominantly left-lateralized in most individuals, with the left hemisphere playing
a dominant role in language-related tasks.
29.Second language acquisition.
Second language acquisition refers to the process of acquiring a language
additional to one's first language. It involves learning and using a new language,
either in a natural or educational setting. Second language acquisition can be
influenced by various factors such as age, exposure, motivation, aptitude, and
language input.
30. Bilingualism and foreign language acquisition.
Bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages proficiently. It involves
individuals who have acquired and use two languages in their daily lives. Foreign
language acquisition, on the other hand, typically refers to the process of learning
and acquiring a language that is not the individual's native or societal language. It
often involves formal instruction and learning in educational settings.
31.Types of bilingualism.
Bilingualism can take various forms. Compound bilingualism refers to individuals
who have learned two languages simultaneously from early childhood. Coordinate
bilingualism refers to individuals who have learned two languages independently
and use them in separate contexts or domains. Subordinate bilingualism refers to
individuals who learn a second language later in life and typically have one
dominant language.
32.Method of Semantic Radical and its procedure.
The Method of Semantic Radical is a psycholinguistic technique used to study the
structure and organization of mental lexicons. It involves analyzing the semantic
components or radicals that make up words and investigating their influence on
word recognition and meaning. The procedure typically includes identifying the
semantic radicals within words, examining their meanings and associations, and
exploring how they contribute to word comprehension and semantic relationships.
33. Method of Semantic Differential and its procedure.
The Method of Semantic Differential is a psycholinguistic technique used to
measure and compare subjective impressions of words or concepts. The procedure
involves presenting individuals with pairs of opposite adjectives (e.g., good-bad,
strong-weak) and asking them to rate a word or concept on a scale between the
opposing adjectives. This method helps capture individuals' evaluative or affective
responses to words or concepts.

34. Free associative test and its procedure.

The Free Associative Test is a psycholinguistic technique used to explore the
associations individuals have with specific words or concepts. The procedure
involves presenting a stimulus word to individuals and asking them to provide the
first word or phrase that comes to mind in response. The responses can reveal
underlying associations, connections, or meanings associated with the stimulus
word.
35.Intent analysis and its procedure.
Intent analysis is a psycholinguistic technique used to understand the
communicative intentions behind language use. The procedure involves analyzing
language or discourse to identify the speaker's or writer's intended meaning,
purpose, or goal. It involves examining linguistic cues, contextual information, and
pragmatic aspects of language to infer the speaker's intended message or purpose.
36. Content analysis and its procedure.
Content analysis is a psycholinguistic technique used to analyze and categorize the
content or themes within texts or discourse. The procedure involves systematically
coding and categorizing textual data based on predefined categories or themes. It
helps identify patterns, frequencies, or associations within the content and provides
insights into the underlying meanings or representations within the text.
37.Psycholinguistic text analysis and its procedure.
Psycholinguistic text analysis involves examining texts or written language from a
psychological and linguistic perspective. The procedure typically includes
analyzing various linguistic features such as vocabulary, syntax, discourse
structure, and semantic content. It aims to understand how these features influence
language processing, comprehension, and interpretation.
38. Speech and language disorders.
Speech and language disorders refer to difficulties or impairments in the
production, understanding, or use of language. These disorders can affect various
aspects of communication, including speech sounds, grammar, vocabulary,
comprehension, and social interactions.
39. Abnormal speech.
Abnormal speech refers to deviations from typical speech patterns or
characteristics. It can include speech disorders such as dysfluencies (stuttering),
articulation disorders (difficulties with speech sounds), voice disorders (problems
with pitch, loudness, or quality), and other speech-related abnormalities.
40. Broca’s aphasias.
Broca's aphasia is a language disorder associated with damage or impairment to
Broca's area in the brain. It typically results in difficulties with expressive
language, including problems with speech production, grammar, and fluency.
Individuals with Broca's aphasia may have trouble forming sentences, speaking
smoothly, or finding the right words to express themselves.
41. Wernicke’s aphasias.
Wernicke's aphasia is a language disorder associated with damage or impairment
to Wernicke's area in the brain. It primarily affects language comprehension,
resulting in difficulties understanding spoken or written language. Individuals with
Wernicke's aphasia may produce fluent but nonsensical speech, have difficulty
finding the right words, and exhibit poor comprehension of others' speech.
42. Speech disorders (defects).
Speech disorders or defects refer to various abnormalities in the production of
speech sounds. They can include articulation disorders (difficulties with specific
speech sounds), phonological disorders (pattern-based errors in sound production),
apraxia of speech (motor planning difficulties), and other speech-related
impairments.
43. Psycholinguistic means of suggestion.
Psycholinguistic means of suggestion involve language or linguistic techniques
used to influence or suggest specific ideas, thoughts, or behaviors. These
techniques can include persuasive language, use of rhetorical devices, priming
effects, or manipulations of linguistic features to elicit desired responses or
influence interpretation.
44. Kinds of information.
Information can be categorized in various ways, such as factual information,
conceptual information, procedural information, sensory information, or emotional
information. Each kind of information serves different purposes and plays a role in
different cognitive processes.
45. Channels of human perception of information.
Human perception of information can occur through various channels or
modalities, including visual perception (through sight), auditory perception
(through hearing), tactile perception (through touch), olfactory perception (through
smell), and gustatory perception (through taste). These channels enable individuals
to perceive and process information from the environment.
46. Areas of Applied Psycholinguistics.
Applied Psycholinguistics involves the application of psycholinguistic theories and
research to practical domains. Some areas of applied psycholinguistics include
language teaching and learning, language assessment, speech therapy,
communication disorders, forensic linguistics, and language technology
development.
47. Psycholinguistic markers of false statements.
Psycholinguistic markers of false statements are linguistic cues or indicators that
can suggest deception or the presence of untrue information. These markers can
include verbal cues such as hesitation, inconsistencies, use of certain types of
language (e.g., more abstract or less concrete language), or non-verbal cues such as
changes in body language or facial expressions.
48. Psycholinguistic analysis of handwriting (psycho-graphology).
Psycholinguistic analysis of handwriting, also known as psycho-graphology,
involves examining handwriting patterns and characteristics to infer psychological
traits, personality attributes, or mental states. It applies psycholinguistic principles
to interpret handwriting as a form of expressive communication and to understand
the relationship between language processing and motor skills involved in writing.