Literary Devices

(FIGURES OF SPEECH)

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A figure of speech or a literary device is a departure from the
ordinary form of expression in order to produce a greater effect.
1. SIMILE: A simile is a direct comparison made between two objects of different
kinds which have however at least one point in common.
A simile is usually introduced by such words as ‘like’ or ‘as’.
NOTE: A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a simile.
There are two essential elements in a simile:
▪ The two objects compared must be different in kind.
▪ The point of likeness must not be too vague, and must be distinctly stated.
Eg. But all the rest of her clothes were burned
Black as coal in the flame.
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2. METAPHOR: A metaphor is an implied simile. It does not, like a simile, state that
one thing is like another or acts as another, but takes that for granted and proceeds as
if the two things were one.
NOTE: Every simile can be compressed into a metaphor and every metaphor can be
expanded into a simile.
Eg. He fought like a lion. (simile)
He was a lion in the fight. (metaphor)
Here he is said to be as brave as a lion. The comparison is implied. It is made
without using the words ‘as’ or ‘like’.
Eg. The wind god winnows and crushes them all.
The wind is indirectly compared to a farmer. Just as a farmer winnows the chaff
from the grain, the wind separated the weak from the strong.
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3. PERSONIFICATION: In personification, inanimate objects and abstract notions
are spoken of as having life and intelligence.
Eg. Old Death has gone thieving elsewhere.
In this line, Death is personified, that is, it is given the human qualities of being
old and of thieving. Hence the figure of speech in this line is personification.
Eg. As I list to this refrain
Which is played upon the shingles
By the patter of the rain.
Here rain is given the human quality of playing a refrain (song) on the roof.
Eg. You tore the pages of the books.
Here wind, a non-living thing, is given the human quality of tearing pages. Hence
the literary device used here is personification.
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4. ANTHROPOMORPHISM: In anthropomorphism, animals or non-human
creatures (dragons, elves, etc) are given human characteristics and behaviour.
Eg. The poem ‘The Duck and the Kangaroo’ – the entire poem is anthropo-
morphism because both the duck and the kangaroo talk and behave like humans.
5. ALLITERATION: This consists in the repetition of one or more similar sounds
or letters at the beginning of two or more words.
Eg. Because it was grassy and wanted wear.
The ‘w’ sound is repeated at the beginning of two words in this line. Hence the
literary device used here is alliteration.
Eg. Though as for that the passing there.
The ‘th’ sound is repeated at the beginning of four words in this line. Hence the
literary device used here is alliteration.
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6. REPETITION: This consists of the repetition of one or more words for
emphasis.
Eg. Somewhere ages and ages hence.
The word ‘ages’ is repeated twice in the sentence for emphasis. So the figure of
speech in this line is repetition.
7. ANAPHORA: In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of
the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora. It is a
special type of repetition.
“My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration.”
Eg. Don’t break the shutters of the windows.
Don’t scatter the papers.
Don’t throw down the books on the shelf.
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8. ONOMATOPOEIA: This figure of speech signifies the use of a word that is
formed from the sound it is intended to represent. It occurs more frequently in
poetry than in prose because in the former the sounds are made to suggest the
sense.
Eg. And lie listening to the patter
Of the soft rain overhead.
` The figure of speech in this sentence is onomatopoeia as ‘patter’ imitates the sound
made by the rain as it falls on the roof.
9. HYPERBOLE: The word means ‘exaggeration’. In this, a statement is made
emphatic by overstatement.
Eg. Somewhere ages and ages hence.
The literary device in the above sentence is hyperbole as an exaggeration is made
to emphasize the fact that he would be narrating his stories many years later.
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10. INVERSION: Inversion is the figure of speech in which the order of the words is
inverted for effect.
Eg. Said the Duck to the Kangaroo.
The order of the words in the given sentence is inverted for effect. So, the figure
of speech is inversion.
11. INTERROGATION (RHETORICAL QUESTION): Interrogation is the asking
of a question not for the sake of getting an answer, but to put a point more
effectively. This figure of speech is also called RHETORICAL QUESTION
because a question is asked merely for the sake of rhetorical effect.
Eg. And who so happy, - O who,
As the Duck and the Kangaroo?
The above question is asked for rhetorical effect and an answer is not expected.
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12. APOSTROPHE: It is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a
personified object or idea. (It is a special form of personification)
Eg. Wind, come softly.
The writer is speaking to wind which is non-living. Hence the literary device in
this sentence is apostrophe.
13. ANTITHESIS: In antithesis a striking opposition or contrast of words or
sentiments is made in the same sentence for emphasis.
Eg. Are fed by peaceful harvests, by war’s long winter starv’d.
Here, two opposite words ‘fed’ and ‘starv’d’ are used in the same sentence for
emphasis. Thus, the figure of speech is antithesis.
Eg. Remember they have eyes like ours that wake or sleep.

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14. OXYMORON: Oxymoron is a figure by which two contradictory qualities are
predicted at once of the same thing. An adjective is added to a word of quite a
contrary meaning.
Eg. She faced the kind cruelty of the surgeon’s knife.
• He is regularly irregular.
Two contradictory qualities are given to him – he is regular as well as irregular.
15. EPIGRAM: An epigram is a brief pointed saying often in poetical form,
frequently introducing antithetical ideas which excite, surprise and arrest
attention. It closely resembles a proverb.
Eg. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
In this sentence, it is said that fools will go without thinking to places where even
angels will not dare to go. This saying appears contradictory but is true.
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• e.g. There is only one thing in the world worse than being talked about, and that is
not being talked about. – ...
• “There are no gains without pains.” – Benjamin Franklin.
• “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” – ...
• “The Child is father of the Man.” – William Wordsworth.

27.INTERNAL RHYME: In poetry, internal rhyme is rhyme that occurs within a

single line of a verse, or between internal phrases across multiple lines.
• While I stand on the roadway, or on the pavements grey.
• Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary
• While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping
• If you go to jail, then who will pay the bail?
• I had a cat who wore hat.
He looked cool but felt the fool.
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16. METONYMY: The word ‘metonymy’ means ‘a change of name’. In metonymy,
an object is designated by the name of something which is generally associated
with it. Since there are many kinds of association between objects, there are
several varieties of metonymy.
❖ The sign for the person or thing symbolised.
From the cradle to the grave.
Here cradle and grave symbolise birth and death respectively. Hence the figure of
speech is metonymy.
You must address the chair.
❖ The container for the thing contained.
The kettle is boiling.
Here kettle is not boiling but it is the water inside the kettle that is boiling.
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❖ The instrument for the agent.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
Here pen symbolises the power of written word whereas sword symbolises
strength or might. Hence the literary device in this line is metonymy.
❖ The author for his works.
We are reading ‘Milton’.
In this line, we are not reading Milton but the works of Milton. So the figure of
speech in this line is metonymy.
Do you learn ‘Shakespeare’ at school?
❖ The name of a feeling or passion for its object.
He said, “Adieu for evermore, my love!”
Here the word ‘love’ which is a feeling is used for the speaker’s beloved.
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17. SYNECDOCHE: Synecdoche is ‘the understanding of one thing by another.’ By
this figure one noun is changed for another of a similar meaning.
❖ Part for the whole:
Remember they have eyes like ours that wake and sleep.
Here eyes stands for the people of other counties. The word ‘eyes’ is used for the
people so the literary device in this line is synecdoche.
❖ Whole for the part:
England won the match against Australia.
‘England’ and ‘Australia’ are used to denote the teams of the two countries. Here
the whole is used to denote a part, hence it is a synecdoche.
❖ An individual for a class:
He is the Newton of this century.
Newton here stands for a scientist. Hence this line is a synecdoche.
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❖ Concrete for abstract:
Seeing him sorrowing, all the mother rose in her heart.
Mother in this line stands for maternal love and instinct. Therefore, the figure of
speech here is synecdoche.
❖ Abstract for concrete:
And the strength of the tree exposed.
Strength, which is an abstract noun, stands for the roots of the tree. Hence the
literary device in this line is synecdoche.
The authorities put an end to the riot.
❖ Material for the thing made:
He gave the man a few coppers to get rid of him.
Coppers here stands for copper coins. The material is used for the thing made.
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18.EXCLAMATION: In this literary device, the exclamatory form is used to draw
greater attention to a point than a mere statement of it would do.
Eg. Good gracious! How you hop!
Here the exclamatory form is used to emphasise the fact that the kangaroo hops
very well. It has a greater impact than making a normal statement. Hence the
figure of speech is exclamation.
19.TRANSFERRED EPITHET: In this figure an epithet (adjective) is transferred
from a word to which it properly belongs, to some other word closely connected
with it.
And the melancholy darkness
In this sentence the darkness is not melancholy. It is the poet who is melancholy.
Hence the figure of speech used here is transferred epithet.
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20.EUPHEMISM: In this figure of speech, we speak of unpleasant things in pleasant
or favourable terms.
The land our brothers walk upon
Is earth like this, in which we shall all lie.
In these lines death which is an unfortunate event, is spoken of in pleasant terms.
Hence the figure of speech here is euphemism.
21.CLIMAX: Climax is a figure in which the sense rises by successive steps to what
is more and more important and impressive.
To hate our brothers, it is ourselves
That we shall dispossess, betray, condemn.
Dispossess, betray, condemn – we see that the sense rises by successive steps.

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22.ANTI-CLIMAX or BATHOS: This is the opposite of climax. It signifies a step-
wise descent from the higher to the lower.
I die, I faint, I fail.
Die, faint and fail – these three words are in the decreasing order of importance.
Hence the figure of speech here is anti-climax.
He lost his family, his job, and his house plants.
23.PUN: A pun is a play on words that produces a humorous effect by using a word
that suggests two or more meanings, or by exploiting similar sounding words that
have different meanings.
➢ What a big heart you’ve got, Father dear.
Big heart refers to the size of the heart as Father was a big man, it also means a
generous and caring person.
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24.IRONY: As a literary device, irony is a contrast between expectations for a
situation and what is reality. We say one thing but mean another, usually the
opposite of what we say.
Eg. When someone makes a mistake you say, “Oh! That was clever!” that is irony.
You’re saying ‘clever’ to mean ‘not clever’.
❖VERBAL IRONY: When the speaker says something in sharp contrast to his
actual meaning.
❖SITUATIONAL IRONY: When the outcome of a situation is very different
from what was expected.
❖DRAMATIC IRONY: When the audience has more information than one of the
characters in a drama.
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25. ALLUSION: Allusion is a literary device in which the writer or speaker refers
either directly or indirectly to a person, event, or thing in history or to a work of
art or literature.
Eg. ‘The Sound of Music’ – the title is an indirect reference to a movie by the
same name. (because the movie was a musical)
Eg. I will arise and go now – these words are from the Bible.
26.ENJAMBMENT: It is the continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the
end of a line, couplet or stanza.
• And the children look like bear’s cubs
In their funny, furry clothes.

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28. IMAGERY: is the literary term used for language and description that appeals to
our five senses. When a writer attempts to describe something so that it appeals to
our sense of smell, sight, taste, touch, or hearing; he/she has used imagery.
Often, imagery is built on other literary devices, such as simile or metaphor, as
the author uses comparisons to appeal to our senses.
Eg. Two roads diverged in a yellow wood.
There are five main types of imagery, each related to one of the human senses:
• Visual Imagery: (sight)
• The sunset was the most gorgeous they'd ever seen; the clouds were edged with
pink and gold.
• Auditory Imagery: (hearing)
• The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days afterward.
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• Olfactory Imagery: (smell)
• She smelled the scent of the sweet hibiscus wafting through the air.
• Gustatory Imagery: (taste)
• The familiar tang of his grandmother's cranberry sauce reminded him of his youth.
• Tactile Imagery: (touch)
• After the long run, he collapsed in the grass with tired and burning muscles. The
grass tickled his skin and the sweat cooled on his brow.
29. PARADOX: It is a statement with two or more parts that seem strange or
impossible together.
• Let us remember, whenever we are told
To hate our brothers, it is ourselves
That we shall dispossess, betray, condemn.
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• Change is the only constant.
• My aunt claims to hate children but has seven kids.
• While Jack loves to cook, he constantly makes fun of male chefs on television.

30. REFRAIN: Refrain is a verse, a line, a set, or a group of lines that appears at the
end of stanza, or appears where a poem divides into different sections. It originated in
France, where it is popular as, refraindre, which means “to repeat.” Refrain is a poetic
device that repeats, at regular intervals, in different stanzas. However, sometimes, this
repetition may involve only minor changes in its wording. It also contributes to the
rhyme of a poem and emphasizes an idea through repetition.
E.g. It is magical, yes, this life that I live
Each day it gives something
Something it gives each day.
It is magical, absolutely magical the life that I live.
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31. POETIC LICENCE: The term itself comes from Latin. Poetic derives from the
Latin poeta, which means "poet" or "maker." License comes from the Latin “licentia”,
which means "to be permitted." Basically, poetic license involves the departure of
facts or even rules for language in order to create a different effect, usually dramatic,
for a piece of work or speech. The specific term poetic license is more commonly
used in reference to a poet's work when they have ignored some of the rules of
grammar for its effect.
Examples include the contractions "o'er" and "e'er," which are commonly used in
poetry.
• They all sat laughing in the little red wagon
At the realio, trulio, cowardly dragon.

• Meouch! cried Ink, and ooh! cried Belinda

For there was a pirate, climbing in the winda.
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32. ASSONANCE: Assonance, or “vowel rhyme,” is the repetition of vowel sounds
across a line of text or poetry. The words have to be near enough to each other that the
similar vowel sounds are noticeable. The word assonance is derived from the Latin
“assonare,” meaning “to sound.” This rhythm-making has a flow-on effect. It helps to
embed a set of words within the mind of whoever is hearing them. Assonance can
also help to build a mood. Long vowel sounds are said to slow down a segment of
writing, making it more somber, and the “oo” sound in particular can be quite gloomy
or spooky. Short vowel sounds are usually more sprightly, particularly the “I” that
flits and skips.
• I wandered lonely as a cloud,
That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. 25
33. SYMBOLISM: Symbolism is a use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by
giving them symbolic meanings different from their literal meanings.

• E.g., in his poem “Fire and Ice,” Robert Frost utilizes symbolism to indicate to
readers how the world may be destroyed.
• In the poem, fire symbolizes destructive and consuming emotions such as jealousy,
desire for power, anger, and impulsivity. Ice, in the poem, symbolizes destructive
and withholding emotions such as hate, indifference, loneliness, and isolation. Of
course, the poet indicates to the reader that the literal meanings of fire and ice
make them capable of destroying and ending the world. However, it’s the
symbolism of fire and ice that enhances the meaning and significance of the poem.

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